Facts 1774-1789

Event

Date

Overview

Facts

King Louis XV dies, succeeded by grandson Louis XVI and the initial state of France

Absolutism and the structure of the Ancien Regime

1774

Louis XV died on the 10th of May 1774, Louis XVI inherited the throne immediately at the age of 20. During the reign of Louis XIV, ‘Sun King’, France had become one of Europe’s most dominant powers; with an established global trading empire. France was the most populated country in Europe, standing 29 million by 1774. Ports such as Bordeaux, Nates and Marseille, thrived in the years leading up to Louis XVI inheritance, thanks to the French colonial empire and its trade in items such as coffee, tobacco and sugar. Although France was, however, primarily an agricultural society. Most Frenchmen and women in 1774 were peasants and this meant that they were at the mercy of the weather. Summer days with some rain promised a good harvest, though, damp conditions with thunderstorms could ruin a year’s hard work in the fields. Meaning that the Catholic-dominated French peasantry looked to their King, appointed by God, for good harvests. Harvests, therefore, were viewed as a reflection of the strength of the monarchy. The Second Estate consisted of the French nobility. At the top were families like the Montmorency-Luxembourg; Noailles, Ayen and Poix, all of whom were related to the crown. The wealthy and ancient families were chiefly known as ‘Noblesse du d’epee’ (Nobles of the sword). Most served in the King’s army as generals or officers. These nobles were given privileges and land as a reward for their loyalty to the crown, much in the way the Normans Barons were given lands and titles following the Norman conquest in 1066. Not all actively supported the King ; the Duc de Orleans, rivals to the throne and in the 1770’s-80’s Louis-Phillipe was both Duc de Orleans and Premier Prince du Sang (First Prince of the Blood) and thus first in line after Louis XVI’s male heirs. He actively sought to challenge Louis and later voted for regicide in 1793. Other families, however, were ‘new money’ and used it to purchase their nobility through one of the venal officers available. Venality of office had emerged during the sixteenth century when the French monarchy was strapped for cash. This made these families exempt from taxation. In addition, the hereditary nature of these postings meant that these titles extended to their children. These nobles were called ‘Noblesse du Robe’ (Nobles of the robe). The Fronde, although suppressed, drove Louis XIV to Versaille in order to have more control of the nobility, as his excessive frivolity was a power play, and to safeguard himself. Access to the monarch was carefully stage managed, whilst royal patronage was highly sought after. Thus, absolutism was not absolute in the 20th century, instead there was the sense of totalitarian rule. As a result of Louis XVI being far less adept, this is arguably what led to the revolution as an absolutist monarch was underpinned by divine right and being a political chess player. Other than military force (in the form of foreign regiments e.g. the Swiss Guard) the King would use Lettres de Cachet. This gave him the power to send people to gaol without trial. By the 1780’s, as many as thirty prisons including the Bastille were used for this purpose. One of the greatest critics of this system was Honore Gabriel Riqueti Comte de Mirabeau, arguing it was despotic. The revolutionaries later adopted similar draconian measures during the Terror. The First Estate under the Bourbons was the Church who looked to the Pope as well as the divine right of Kings. As a result the French Church was given greater autonomy and privileges, but was later deemed treacherous due to its foreign influence. They were all exempt from taxation, like the Second Estate, but unlike the Second Estate they were even exempt from vingtieme. They did pay a voluntary sum, known as the don gratuit, to the crown, but this doesn’t class as taxation. Clergy were also tried in Church courts and were thus liable to be given lesser punishments than local courts.

France under the Bourbons was a state on the verge of change, with Europe set to be convulsed with political, social and industrial upheaval. However, it maintained characteristics which by no means were modern. This duality would be one of the reasons why the French Revolution would act as a political earthquake, the aftershocks of which would be felt long after the lifetimes of those who lived through it.

• Louis inherited the throne on the 10th May 1774 at 20 years of age

• France’s population had grown from 21 million in 1715 to 29 million by 1774

• Ports: Bordeaux, Nates and Marseille

• The Bourbon’s, the royal family, was only 80 years old

The Third Estate

• 24,500,000- Third Estate

• Most diverse social group, representing 97% of French society

• Taxed the most heavily

The Second Estate

• Noailles, Ayen and Poix, all of whom were related to the crown

• Venality - buying and selling of public offices

• Noblesse du d'épée (Nobles of the sword) Noblesse du Robe (Nobles of the robe)

• Members of The Second Estate dominated the higher ranks of the Army and Judiciary

• The local Seigneurs (Lords) collected

• Vingtieme - the only tax the Second Estate had to pay (5%), however in the crown’s pursuit to boost revenue it was raised

• Seigneurial/Feudal dues from the local peasants, which ranged from ⅓ to 1/20 of the main harvest crop. Additionally, the Corvee Seigneuriale had to undertake work as stipulated by their Lord for a set number of days per year.

• 1648-53: The Fronde

• 400,000 - Nobility

• Napoleon Bonaparte, future Emperor, was a member of the Second Estate in 1789

The First Estate

• The Church owned 6% of rural France

• It is estimated that the Church’s revenue in 1789 was perhaps as high as 150 million livres, whilst the crown’s deficit at this time stood at 112 million livres

• 100,000 - Clergy (First Estate)

• Responsible for education, large-landed estates and maintenance of public decency

The ideas of the Enlightened philosophers

1740-80

The Enlightenment philosophes questioned political, social and other established traditions. Philosophes believed that the Catholic Church was a block to progress, however, their attempts to critique the Church, indirectly critiqued the Crown. By the end of the Enlightenment the public had developed political conscience. The movement encouraged debate about freedom, opportunity, and behaviour towards others: philosophies that were later to be summed up in the French Revolutionary slogan,‘liberté égalité fraternité’. The dissemination of such ideas was largely limited to the educated and there was no concrete political programme for reform. Nevertheless, the intellectual atmosphere generated in the academies and salons (Madame Necker), and stimulated by the American War of Independence, encouraged criticism of absolute government and the institutions associated with it. Polymaths were masters of all trades, e.g. Da Vinci, Rousseau and Newton.

The American War of Independence was incredibly influential on the Enlightenment ideas and ultimately the French Revolution. The war began in 1776 and the French joined the Americans in 1778, as revenge against the British for the Seven Year War (1756-63). This liberation from the British inspired liberation from within France as Enlightened Nobles returned as ‘Politicised Warriors’.

• Jean-Jaques Rousseau was a philosopher, writer and composer of the 18th century. Born June 28th 1712 in Geneva, Switzerland. He died July 2nd 1778 in Ermenonville, France. He was influenced by Voltaire, John Locke and Montesquieu. He went on to influence Maximillion Robespierre and consequently the Cult of Supreme Being.

• “Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.”~ Jean-Jaques Rousseau: Human nature is inherently good but circumstance forces people to do bad. He saw change coming from the top, not through a revolution (enlightened rulers not despots).

• Voltaire was a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher, famous for his attacks on the Catholic Church, stating it shouldn’t meddle with politics or have a monopoly over education. He was born November 21st 1694 in Paris, and died May 30th 1778 in Paris. He was influenced by John Locke, Confucius and William Shakespeare

• Diderot was a French philosopher, art critic and writer. Born Oct 5th 1713, and died Jul 31st 1784. He created the encyclopaedia, making the access to a wide range of knowledge much easier. He worked alongside Rousseau.

• Montesquieu was originally a lawyer who transitioned into writing about political theory. He published “De L'Esprit des Lois” which challenged the existing system. He emphasised on the importance of freedom and the separation of power: executive, legislative and judiciary.

Economic context

1770-80

The French economy was predominantly agricultural: only 15% of the population lived in localities of more than 2000 inhabitants. However, due to seigneurial arrangements and the rise in population, farming families were dividing land between sons. This reduced the size of holdings to below the level of self-sufficiency. In comparison to Britain and the United Provinces, France can be considered backwards in its way of operation. The yield from French farms was very low, there was rural overpopulation and the highly-taxed peasantry persisted with backward agricultural practices. Food production could not keep up with the population growth. The state imposed many regulations, including internal trade barriers, thus, making the transport of goods more expensive and consequently driving up the prices of said goods as a result of the scarcity and expenses. There were variations in weights and measures across the country. It had been estimated that there were 25,000 different units of measure in use in France before 1789. They varied between towns and trades, which offered ample opportunity for fraud. In 1780 there was a decline in France’s textile industry in the face of British competition. The French industry was less mechanised than that of the British. The banking system in France was untrustworthy, as a borrowing scheme using paper money had been introduced by John Law at the beginning of the 18th century, but it collapsed. Leaving businessmen and traders to fear paper notes. This is important context to emphasise the popularity of Necker, as when he tried to re-introduce credit through notes people were much more willing to follow him than they were with Brienne.

Government was financed by direct and indirect taxation, supplemented by ‘temporary expendants’ such as loans or sales of offices to meet the shortfall between income and expenditure. Traditionally, the main direct tax was the taille personnel (paid on the estimated value of annual possessions), but in some areas this was calculated differently and was known as the taille reelle. The capitation and vigtieme were used by kings to fund wars, which theoretically everyone had to pay. The privileges of the first two estates however, had these taxes considerably reduced. Government was increasingly forced to rely upon loans and as interest had to be paid on these loans, a substantial royal debt had been run up. When Louis XIV, the sun king, died in 1715, France already had a national debt of 2 billion livres. The annual interest on this payment was 165 million livres, which was more than the government collected in taxes; producing a severe balance of payments crisis (deficit). A number of ill-advised financial manoeuvres in the late 1700s worsened the financial situation of the already desperate French government. The War of the Austrian Succession (1756-63) was closely followed by France’s prolonged involvement in the Seven Years’ War of 1756–1763 which cost around 1.3 billion livres and ended with the disastrous economic loss of all French colonial possessions in North America. Thus, by the time Louis XVI came to the throne in 1774 France was already in an economic state of crisis. So, the country’s participation in the American Revolution of 1775–1783 aggravated the situation further and due to the government having a sizable army and navy to maintain, which was an expenditure of particular importance during those volatile times, an environment by in which France was digging itself a larger whole to climb out of was created. By 1783 the national debt stood at 3.3 billion livres. Moreover, in the typical indulgent fashion associated with the upkeep of King Louis XVI’s extravagant palace at Versailles and the frivolous spending of the queen, Marie-Antoinette, did little to relieve the growing debt. These decades of fiscal irresponsibility were one of the primary factors that led to the French Revolution.

• 15% of the population lived in localities of more than 2000 inhabitants and the population had risen by six million from 1700 to 1789

• In 1789, Britain had 200 cotton mills, whilst France had 8; Britain had 20,000 spinning jennies, whilst France had 1000

• The Seven Years’ War of 1756–1763, and the American Revolution of 1775–1783.

• Marie Antoinette= Madame Deficit

• Direct taxes:

• Taille; a tax on the property and income of the Third Estate

• Capitation (poll tax); this was theoretically payable by everyone but the clergy paid the don gratuit instead and the Second Estate payments varied depending on rank, status, occupation and property. There were 22 different tax classes.

• Vingtieme (income tax); a direct tax of 5% on earnings from land, property, commerce, industry and official offices. Although it was intended to be levied on all, the clergy had exemption, the pays d’etats had reduced rates and the parlements resisted new assessments of income. Thus their taxes did not increase as their wealth did.

• Indirect taxes:

• Gabelle; salt tax collected by the ferme generale

• Tabac; tobacco tax collected by the ferme generale

• Aides; consumption tax on consumer goods such as, wine, liquor, oil, textiles, tallow, iron, wood livestock, playing cards, hides, soap, and paper. Collected by the regie generale.

• Domaine; taxes on the Crown Lands, collected by the regie generale and overseen by the chambre des Comptes

• Traite; custom duty, collected by the regie generale

• Timbre; stamp tax, levied on legal transactions and collected by the regie generale

• Octrois; customs tax on goods brought into towns

• In 1763, at the end of the Seven Years War the national debt stood at 50 million livres, by 1774 it stood at 40 million because people had returned from the war so more people were being taxed. When the French joined the AWOI their debt stood at 112 million livres.

• The deficit in 1781 was 160 million livres, whereas in 1782 it grew to 295 million

Turgot appointed

1774-76

Turgot was appointed finance minister in 1774 but was dismissed two years later. Turgot was a physiocrat (science and economics) who believed in a free market to stimulate demand and create taxable wealth. Turgot tried to weed out useless officers and expensive tax farmers by putting the collection of some taxes in the hands of government agents called regisseurs. His attempts to introduce free trade with grain were poorly timed, as a bad harvest in 1774 sent prices rocketing and the rioting that followed in northern France (known as the 'Flour War') put Turgot in a vulnerable position. In 1776 Turgot introduced the Six Edicts, in the hopes of building a fairer society. This was an enlightened attempt to shift the brunt of the tax burden from the poorer sections of society to the more wealthy. In response, the Paris Parlement defended its privilege from attack by condemning the Edicts as an ‘inadmissible system of equality’. Although Louis XVI and his chief minister, Maurepas, had been persuaded by Turgot that the Edicts were a good thing, in the end their nerve failed. Marking the failure of Turgot’s attempts to reform the constitution. Parlement’s protest was significant but ultimately, Turgot was undermined by a lack of support at Court. Historian E.N. Williams argues that with the fall of Turgot, the crown went past the point of no return. The ministers that followed made the situation worse as they could not face trying to reform the system, as Turgot had tried, or agitated the situation by attempting other financial reforms.

• Bad harvest in 1774 sent prices rocketing and the rioting that followed in northern France was known as the 'Flour War'

• Measures of the Six Edicts included:

• Unnecessary offices were to be abolished

• Free trade in grain was to be included in Paris

• Monopolistic guilds were to be abolished

• The corvee was to be replaced with a General Land Tax paid by all

• Historian E.N. Williams argues that with the fall of Turgot, the crown went past the point of no return.

Necker

1777-81

Necker’s appointment coincided with the AWOI, which was an expensive venture. Necker attempted to introduce financial reforms to the system hoping to reduce the deficit problem; he did this by attempting to abolish offices, cut royal extravagance and recognise public accounts. He made plans to introduce provincial assemblies, this was halted by the intendants. The most significant to reforming the system was the introduction of a Central Treasury to control spending. Necker’s greatest talent was raising loans from investors, this avoided increasing taxation and as a result, any hostility from the Paris Parlement. Necker raised 520 million livres between 1777 and 1781, the interest rate however, stood at 6-10%. These efforts paid for the American War but in order to prove his credit worthiness, he published the compte rendu in 1781. The compte rendu showed 10 million livres in credit; but not the 200 million livres spent on the war, it had a limited lifespan. By the influence of Marie-Antoinette and Ministers Necker was dismissed in 1781. Necker’s strategy was short term and could not be sustained.

• Necker raised 520 million livres between 1777 and 1781, the interest rate however, stood at 6-10%

• Necker published the compte rendu in 1781

• The compte rendu showed 10 million livres in credit; but not the 200 million livres spent on the war

Calonne

1783-87

Calonne reinstated the practice of selling offices, many of which Necker had abolished. He also borrowed heavily, which could only be sustained for a short time and by 1785, credit was drying up. The Paris Parlement refused to register any further loans, forcing Calonne to come up with a scheme to reform the tax system of France. It was radical, ambitious and consisted of three parts:

1. Replace the capitiation and the vingtieme with a single land tax; everyone would have to pay and there would be no exemptions considered.

2. Internal customs barriers and price controls in grain trading would be abandoned; this would hopefully stimulate the economy and allow the free movement of grain from one part of France to another.

3. National confidence would be restored, enabling Calonne to raise loans in the short term to resolve the most immediate problems. On 20th of August 1786, Calonne informed Louis that the state was on the verge of financial collapse. For 1786, there would be a shortfall of over 100 million livres. The shock of this should not be underestimated as the compte rendu of 1781 presented the crown's financial situation in a much more positive way; this was, of course, totally misleading and made Calonne's job of convincing the king of the need for reform harder.

• Calonne’s reforms of taxation:

1. Replace the capitiation and the vingtieme with a single land tax; everyone would have to pay and there would be no exemptions considered.

2. Internal customs barriers and price controls in grain trading would be abandoned; this would hopefully stimulate the economy and allow the free movement of grain from one part of France to another.

3. National confidence would be restored, enabling Calonne to raise loans in the short term to resolve the most immediate problems.

Brienne

1787-88

Brienne replaced Calonne although the Notables were no more cooperative with him than they were with Calonne. This was the moment in which the parlement emerged as the focus of political dissent. Brienne retained Calonne's land tax and introduced further reform. He ended further venal offices, reformed education, established a central treasury, codified laws, reformed the army and introduced religious toleration. He also took out new loans at very high rates of interest. The parlement blocked these reforms and stated that the Estates-General were the only body who could consent to new taxes. Additionally, crowds were assembling on the streets calling for the Estates-General; Louis reacted by exiling parlement to Troyes. In the end, by September, Louis had to relent and allowed the parlement back to Paris. This did not stop the demonstration which was made up of nobles and middle class citizens, who supported the parlement, and who argued that they were defending the rights of the people against a despotic regime. In May 1788, the Paris Parlement sued the 'Fundamental Laws of the Kingdom' in which it argued that only the Estates-General could sanction new taxes. This was countered by the Crown who issued the 'May Edicts' which deprived the parlements of their right to register and protest against royal decrees. Worst of all, the clergy-the group most loyal to the Crown - began to support the parlement. They condemned the reforms and granted a don gratuit of less than a quarter the size the Crown had requested. This shows that the protests were led by the First and Second Estate rather than the Third. The reason the protests kept up momentum was the collapse of the Crown's finances. On 16th August, payments from the treasure were suspended and Brienne resigned. Necker was brought back in after Brienne’s resignation in 1788, despite Louis’ reluctance as many were demanding his reinstatement, but even the popular Necker could not halt the continuing financial crisis, which led to the declaration of bankruptcy in August 1788. However, with the old reform package abandoned, minds focussed on the promise of an Estates General, which was to be held on the 5th of May 1789.

• The Clergy granted a don gratuit of less than a quarter the size the Crown had requested in 1788

• Brienne, Archbishop of Toulouse and President of the Parlement of Paris replaced Calonne

• Brienne actions:

• retained Calonne's land tax and introduced further reform

• He ended further venal offices

• Reformed education

• Established a central treasury

• Codified laws

• Reformed the army

• Introduced religious toleration

• He also took out new loans at very high rates of interest

Louis XVI declares war on England in support of American Revolution

1778

The liberation in America from the British inspired liberation within France. Generals, enlightened and of the Second Estate, went over to America and became politicised. France joined this fight as retribution for the Seven Year War they lost in 1763. Lafayette was a general in the AWOI, an enlightened noble of the Second Estate who returned as a ‘politicised warrior’, he later became a prominent figure in the early revolution; before he was deemed a traitor. France joining the AWI was detrimental to France’s already struggling economy. Jacques Necker raised loans to cover cost, adding to the national debt, but this ‘tinkering at the margins’ is what contemporaries praised him for, as Necker hadn’t raised taxes, but this created a long-term problem which caused the need to call an Estates General.

• 1776 - The American Revolution

• 1778 - The French joined the war against the British

• 1781 - Siege of Yorktown, 8,000 Cornwallis surrendered

• 1783 - The British lost, signed the treaty in Versailles

Assembly of Notables; Parlement remonstrates against land tax and is exiled

1787 Feb

The Assembly consisted of 144 members- nobles, bishops and princes- who would theoretically support the crown’s proposals. However, they were immediately hostile towards Calonne’s proposals, citing the compte rendu as evidence for Calonne’s incompétence. The attempt to obtain consent for a land tax in the Assembly of Notables failed and, as a result, Parlement proved even more hostile to the registration of such a measure. Parlement claimed to champion the ‘fundamental rights’ of the nation, while the King tried to curb its powers in the May Edicts. The clash led to Louis banishing the Parlement to Troyes. In April of 1787, Calonne directly appealed to the public stating that the Assembly were only interested in their own privileges. This further provoked criticism of Calonne and Louis XVI dismissed him in April.

• 144 members

The Paris Parlement

May 1787

Brienne now called the Paris Parlement, trying to force the Parlement to accept the tax changes using the Lit de Justice. The Parlement refused, calling for an Estates General instead. Regional Parlements also opposed the King’s plans and rioting occurred across France. The King was forced to back peddle and the Paris Parlement returned in September 1787.

• Lit de Justice: allows the King to squash opinion or a decision with his own

Royal Session

Nov 1787

At a Royal Session of the organisation, the Duc D’Orleans critisied Louis’ actions and was removed by the King’s use of Lettres du Cachet. Thus, only through negotiation did any change occur- the Parlement accepted the vingtieme but on the condition that an Estates General be called ‘by 1792’.

Paris Parlement

May 1788

In May of 1788, the Paris Parlement issued the ‘Fundamental Laws of the Rights of the Kingdom’ which they argued could not be changed, even by the King. They furthered their call for an Estates General sooner than the King wanted. The King in turn issued the May Edicts which limited the power of the Paris Parlement. The May Edicts were forced through by a Lit de Justice. The Paris Parlement then staged an all night protest which was stopped with the use of royal troops. Popular protest flooded the pamphlets (‘Friend of the People’, savaging the monarchy) in the aftermath of this and the provincial parlements sent hundreds of remonstrances to the royal court.

Day of Tiles in Grenoble

7th June 1788

The Revolt of Grenoble (Day of Tiles) is considered the event which pushed Louis XVI to calling an Estates General. This is greatly significant when reflecting on the impact the common people had on the origins of the French Revolution. Tensions that had been rising due to poor harvests and the high cost of bread, which were then being exacerbated by the refusal of the First and Second Estate to relinquish the right to collect feudal and seignorial royalties from their peasants. This is crucial context as on the 20th of 1788 the Parlement of Dauphiné joined the rebellion of the other regional Parlements in open opposition of the Crown. To suppress this, Lettres De Cachet were issued against the Nobles on the 7th of June to the judges. The significance of the aforementioned context is that the 7th was a Saturday, and Saturday was market day. This meant the peasants were densely gathered and they disliked the proposed judicial reforms because of the impacts on the local economy. If the Parlement of Dauphiné lost its regional monopoly on justice, many customers could be lost. On the morning of the 7th, rumours that the judges would be forcefully removed by the government swirled paranoia and uncertainty, as a result the people began to mobilise. The commander of the troops, Duc de Clemont-Tonnerre, responded by sending troops to the area in small detachments, instead of pacification the troops presence aggravated the peasants and the fault of sending small detachments meant that they were outnumbered by the peasants. The people took to the roof tops to hurl roof tiles at the troops.

• Very few people died considering the event, however, a 12yr old boy died

• Historian Jonathan Sperber has used the Day of the Tiles to demonstrate the worsening situation in France in the buildup to the French Revolution of 1789.

France is declared bankrupt

August 1788

The reasons the aforementioned protests kept momentum was the collapse of the Crown's finances. Bankruptcy had been stalled, but by August 1788, it could be avoided no longer. On 16th of August, payments from the treasury were suspended and Brienne resigned. Necker returned to office with the oversight of Marie-Antoinette. Bankruptcy in conjunction with the ‘Day of Tiles’, the Estates General would now meet on the 5th of May 1789. Following this, provinces were called to create Cahiers (lists of grievances), to inform debate when the Estates General met at Versailles.

• 16th of August, payments from the treasury were suspended and Brienne resigned.

Cahiers de doleances

1789

The cahiers, drawn up in 1789, in accordance with an ancient custom by the three orders of the realm, form one of the most extraordinary historical documents of all time.The conditions under which they were drafted were, on the whole, favourable to a frank and general expression on the part of all classes of the French people of their suggestions for reform.

Reveillon Riots

26th-29th Apr 1789

There were riots over wages and the cost of bread, such as the Réveillon riots between 26 and 29 April 1789 in the St. Antoine district of Paris. Rioting was not new in French political culture, indeed in 1775 grain riots had spread across France in what became known as the Flour Wars This event led to riots outside Versailles itself on 2-3 May 1775. Eventually the riots across France were stopped but only with the aid of 25,000 royalist troops. This provides context for the fear of starvation felt across France.

• By 1788 Parisians were spending 88% of their income on bread

Sieyes published ‘What is the Third Estate?’

January 1789

The pamphlet, ‘What is the Third Estate?’ was tremendous as it evaluated the structure of the Ancien Regime and advocated for a political voice amongst the overlooked masses.

• “What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been hitherto in the political order? Nothing. What does it desire to be? Something.”