1.1 Introduction to Psychology

Key Definitions

• Psychology: The scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Important Figures and Contributions

• William Wundt:

  • Father of Psychology.

  • Created the first laboratory dedicated to psychology research.

  • Focused on senses, reaction time, attention spans, and emotions.

  • Student Edward Titchener later created Structuralism.

• William James:

  • Taught the first psychology course at Harvard University.

  • Wrote the first psychology textbook.

  • Created Functionalism.

  • Promoted women's involvement in psychology (e.g., Mary Whiton Calkins).

• Stanley Hall:

  • First American to earn a Ph.D. in Psychology.

  • Opened the first U.S. psychology lab.

  • First president of the American Psychological Association (APA).

• Mary Whiton Calkins:

  • Joined James's graduate seminar despite pushback.

  • Significant contributions in memory research.

  • First female APA president.

• Margaret Floy Washburn:

  • Significant contributions to animal research.

  • First woman to earn a psychology degree.

  • Second female APA president.

• Charles Darwin:

  • Proposed natural selection.

  • His ideas shaped Evolutionary Psychology.

• Dorothea Dix:

  • Highlighted inhumane treatment of the mentally ill.

  • Helped reform insane asylums.

• Sigmund Freud:

  • Created Psychoanalytic Theory (later Psychodynamic Approach).

  • Focused on unconscious mind and unconscious motives shaping personality.

• Ivan Pavlov:

  • Studied reflex conditioning (Classical Conditioning).

  • Famous for experiments with dogs.

• Jean Piaget:

  • Conducted systematic study of cognitive development in children.

  • Created a theory of cognitive development.

• Carl Rogers:

  • Founding figure of Humanistic Psychology.

  • Contributed to understanding of personality.

• B.F. Skinner:

  • Expanded on Behavioralism (Behaviorism).

  • Known for Operant Conditioning.

• John B. Watson:

  • Founder of Behaviorism.

  • Focused on psychology as a scientific study of observable phenomena.

Historical Schools of Thought

• Structuralism: Focused on structures of consciousness via introspection.

• Functionalism: Understanding mental and behavioral processes through evolved functions.

• Gestalt Psychology: Studied the whole consciousness and focused on perception, sensation, learning, and problem-solving.

• Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach: Unconscious processes and conflict between id, ego, and superego.

Modern Perspectives

• Early Behavioralism: Focuses on observable, learned behaviors.

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

• Humanistic Approach: Humans are naturally good and seek self-actualization.

• Sociocultural Approach: Examines cultural, religious, and social norms impacting behavior.

• Evolutionary Approach: Current behaviors shaped by natural selection.

• Biological Approach: Links brain structures and nervous system to psychological processes.

• Cognitive Approach: Focuses on attitudes, memories, and perceptions.

Psychological Domains

• Basic Research Domains:

  • Biological, Developmental, Cognitive, Educational, Personality, Social, Positive, Psychometric

• Applied Research Domains:

  • Industrial/Organizational, Counseling, Clinical

Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist

• Counselors: Help individuals cope with life challenges.

• Psychiatrists: Medical doctors who can prescribe medication and provide psychotherapy.

1.2 Research Methods in Psychology

Key Terms

• Operational Definition: Describes procedures, actions, or processes for replicating a study.

• Population vs. Sample:

  • Population: Entire group being studied.

  • Sample: Subset of the population representing the whole.

Sampling Techniques

• Random Sample: Each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

• Stratified Sample: Population is divided into subcategories, and a random sample is taken from each.

Research Methods

• Experiments: Controlled conditions to study relationships between variables.

• Correlational Studies: Predict relationships between variables but do not show cause and effect.

• Surveys: Self-reported data, prone to wording effects and social desirability bias.

• Naturalistic Observation: Observes behavior in a real-world setting without staging.

• Case Studies: Analyze different perspectives of a topic chronologically.

• Longitudinal Studies: Follow a group over a long period of time.

• Cross-Sectional Studies: Compare different groups at the same time.

1.3 Defining Psychological Science: The Experimental Method

Key Terms

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction.

• Theory: Statement supported by data to explain a phenomenon.

• Causal Relationship: An independent variable (IV) causes a dependent variable (DV).

• Confounding Variables: Other variables that may impact the DV.

Experimental Design

• Random Assignment: Each participant has an equal chance of being in the control or experimental group.

• Single Blind Study: Participants are unaware of which group they're in.

• Double Blind Study: Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments.

Experiment Groups

• Control Group (Placebo Group): Receives a placebo.

• Experimental Group: Receives the independent variable.

Quasi-Experiments

• Used when controlled experiments are impossible/unethical.

• No random assignment.

1.4 Selecting a Research Method

Reliability and Validity

• Reliability: Repeatability of a test or study.

• Validity: How well a test measures what it claims to measure.

Types of Bias

• Hindsight Bias: Tendency to think the outcome was predictable.

• False Consensus Effect: Overestimating how many share one's opinions.

• Confirmation Bias: Focusing only on data that aligns with one's viewpoint.

• Experimenter/Researcher Bias: Researcher unknowingly influences the outcome.

• Social Desirability Bias: Participants change answers to create a favorable impression.

• Hawthorne Effect: Participants alter behavior because they know they're being observed.

1.5 Math and Statistical Analysis in Psychology

Types of Data

• Quantitative Data: Numbers and facts, not open to interpretation.

• Qualitative Data: Words and interpretations.

Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics: Organize and describe data.

• Inferential Statistics: Make predictions based on data.

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean: Average of a data set.

• Median: Middle value of a data set.

• Mode: Value that occurs most often.

Measures of Variability

• Range: Difference between highest and lowest values.

• Standard Deviation: Average distance from the mean.

Types of Distributions

• Normal Distribution: Symmetrical bell curve.

• Positive Skew: Low scores clustered to the left of the mean.

• Negative Skew: High scores clustered to the right of the mean.

• Bimodal Distribution: Two modes, causing two peaks.

Z-Scores and Percentile Rank

• Z-Scores: Indicates how far a score deviates from the mean.

• Percentile Rank: Percentage of scores at or below a particular score.

Correlational Coefficients

• Positive Correlation: Variables increase/decrease together.

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.

• No Correlation: No relationship between variables.

1.6 Ethical Guidelines in Psychology

Ethical Oversight

• APA (American Psychological Association): Governs ethical standards in psychology.

• IRB (Institutional Review Board): Ensures adequate protection for participants.

Ethical Guidelines

• Informed Consent: Participants have adequate information to make a rational decision.

• Confidentiality: Participant information is private.

• Protection from Harm: Minimize physical and psychological risks.

Notable Experiments

• Stanford Prison Experiment: Failed to protect participants due to inadequate measures.

Protection of Animals

• IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee): Oversees the protection of animals in studies.