2025 Exam 1 study guide (1)

Chapter 1: The Evolution of Psychology

• Founding of Psychology

  • Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Germany in 1879.

  • Early schools of thought include structuralism and functionalism.

  • Psychology initially defined as "the science of mental life."

  • Revised in the 1920s by behaviorists to "scientific study of observable behavior."

  • Influences on modern psychology include psychoanalytic, humanistic, and cognitive psychology.

  • Current definition: "the science of behavior and mental processes."

• Human Thinking and Misconceptions

  • Everyday thinking can lead to erroneous conclusions because of:

    • Hindsight bias: Believing we could have predicted an outcome after it happens.

    • Overconfidence: Overestimating how much we know.

    • Perceiving order in random events: Our inclination to find patterns where none exist.

• Role of Theories in Psychology

  • Theories organize observations and predict behaviors/events.

  • Generate hypotheses for testing via descriptive, correlational, or experimental methods.

  • A theory can be confirmed, rejected, or revised based on research.

  • Operational definitions allow for replication, increasing confidence in results.

  • Preregistration of research plans promotes transparency in psychological science.

• Methods of Observation

  • Case studies: In-depth studies of individuals or groups to reveal general truths.

  • Naturalistic observations: Studying behaviors in their natural context without intervention.

  • Surveys: Collecting data from many people through random sampling for generalizability.

Chapter 2: Biological Foundations of Behavior

• Correlations and Predictions

  • Correlations show how two variables relate but do not imply causation.

  • Positive correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.

  • Negative correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

  • Correlation coefficients range from -1.00 to +1.00; 0 means no relationship.

• Experimentation in Psychology

  • Experiments enable researchers to determine cause-effect relationships.

  • Independent variables are manipulated; dependent variables are measured.

  • Random assignment helps minimize confounding variables.

  • Double-blind procedures control for placebo effects and biases.

• Neuroplasticity

  • Biological and experiential factors contribute to neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to change.

  • Strongest during childhood but continues throughout life.

• Structure of Neurons

  • Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites, and axon (sometimes myelinated).

  • Action potential: An electrical impulse that travels down an axon.

Chapter 3: Development Across the Lifespan

• Nervous System Divisions

  • CNS: Composed of the brain and spinal cord.

  • PNS: Sensory and motor neurons; includes the

    • Somatic, controlling voluntary actions

    • Autonomic nervous system, with sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) subdivisions.

• Brain Structures

  • Brainstem: Controls vital functions (e.g., heartbeat, breathing).

  • Limbic system: Emotional responses, includes:

    • Amygdala: Aggression and fear.

    • Hypothalamus: Body regulation (hunger, temperature).

    • Hippocampus: Memory processing.

  • Cerebral Cortex: Higher order functions divided into:

    • Frontal lobes: Higher cognitive functions, decision making.

    • Parietal lobes: Sensory input processing.

    • Occipital lobes: Visual processing.

    • Temporal lobes: Auditory processing.

• Parenting Styles

  • Authoritarian: Demanding with little responsiveness.

  • Permissive: Responsive with few demands.

  • Neglectful: Unresponsive and demanding.

  • Authoritative: Both demanding and responsive.