Untitled Flashcards Set

Heredity/Nature The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring. Environment/Nurture every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us Evolutionary Perspective An approach to psychological inquiry that views human cognition and behavior in a Darwinian context of adaptation to physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges. Eugenics a philosophy that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding. Central Nervous System The brain and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body. Autonomic Nervous System The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs. Somatic Nervous System The division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. Parasympathetic Nervous System The division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy. Sympathetic Nervous System The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy. Neuron A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. Glial Cells Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. They play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. Reflex Arc the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action - at its simplest, a sensory nerve and a motor nerve with a synapse between. Sensory Neurons Also known as afferent neurons. Neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. Motor Neurons Also known as efferent neurons. Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Interneurons Neurons witin the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. All-or-Nothing Principle A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. Depolarization a reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface. Refractory Period In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state. Reuptake A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. Multiple Sclerosis a chronic, progressive disease involving damage to the sheaths of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. Symptoms may include numbness, impairment of speech and of muscular coordination, blurred vision, and severe fatigue. Threshold The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. Myasthenia Gravis an autoimmune disorder in which the body produces antibodies against acetylcholine receptors, causing faulty transmission of nerve impulses at neuromuscular junctions. neurotransmitter Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released, they bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. excitatory neurotransmitter Chemicals that depolarize postsynaptic neurons, resulting in a greater likelihood of an action potential. inhibitory neurotransmitter chemicals that hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neurons, resulting in a lessened likelihood of an action potential. Dopamine a neurotransmitter that has an important role in motor behavior and is implicated in numerous mental conditions and emotional states, as well as within the brain's reward center. Abnormalities regarding this neurotransmitter are associated with Parkinson's Disease, ADHD, and Schizophrenia. Serotonin A common neurotransmitter with roles in emotional processing, mood, appetite, and sleep. It is implicated in many psychological conditions, including depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, sleep disorders, aggression, and psychosis. Norepinephrine A chemical classified as both a hormone and neurotransmitter that assists in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions. Glutamate The predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Plays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions. GABA a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. Endorphin Neurotransmitters produced in the brain that block the perception of pain and increase feelings of wellbeing. Substance P A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain. Acetylcholine a major neurotransmitter that plays an important role in memory formation and learning. Is implicated in both Alzheimer's disease and myasthenia gravis. Hormone A chemical messenger that is manufactured by endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. Adrenaline A neurotransmitter and hormone that is secreted in large amounts when an individual is stimulated by fear, anxiety, or a similar stress-related situation. Increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions, relaxes bronchial and intestinal smooth muscle, and produces varying effects on blood pressure. Leptin A hormone produced by fat cells acting mainly in the regulation of appetite and fat storage. Ghrelin A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach. Melatonin A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness. Oxytocin a hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts. Important for the formation of attachment between mother and child. Psychoactive Drug Any substance that has significant effects on psychological processes, such as thinking, perception, and emotion. Agonist A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action. Antagonist A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action. Stimulants Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Depressants Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. Hallucinogens Psychedelic, "mind manifesting" drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. Opioids Opium and its derivatives; drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. Tolerance The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect. Addiction The everyday term for compulsive substance use. Brain Stem The central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions. Medulla The hindbrain structure that is the brainstem's base; controls heart rate and breathing. Reticular Activating System The nerve network that travels through the brain stem and into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal. Cerebellum The hindbrain's "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. Cerebral Cortex The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain's cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. Limbic System Neural system located mostly in the forebrain - below the cerebral hemispheres - that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives. Thalamus The forebrain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. Hypothalamus A limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward. Amygdala Two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked with emotion. Pituitary Gland The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. Hippocampus A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories - of facts and events - for storage. Corpus Callosum The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. Occipital Lobe The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. Parietal Lobe The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position. Frontal Lobe portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. Enables linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and decisions) Temporal Lobe The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears. It includes the auditory areas, which receive information primarily from the opposite ear. The left hemisphere also enables language processing. Motor Cortex A cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobe athat controls voluntary movement. Broca's Area A frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech. Wernicke's Area A brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression. Split Brain Research Surgical cutting of the corpus callosum to study the effects of disconnecting the right and left brain hemispheres - specifically, the independent functioning of the two hemispheres. Brain Plasticity The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways. Brain Lateralization The organization of the brain into right and left hemispheres, with each hemisphere performing unique and specialized functions. EEG (Electroencephalogram) An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. fMRI A technique for revealing blood flow, and therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. Show function as well as structure. Lesions Tissue destruction. May occur naturally, during surgery, or experimentally. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. Show brain anatomy. Circadian Rhythm the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle NREM Sleep Quiet, typically dreamless sleep in which rapid eye movements are absent; divided into four stages; also called quiet sleep. REM Sleep A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. Activation Synthesis Theory Theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story Consolidation Theory The theory that circuits wired together during the waking period are consolidated, or strengthened, during sleep Insomnia Tecurring problems in falling or staying asleep Narcolepsy A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. REM Sleep Behavior Disorder A neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams. Sleep Apnea a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings Somnambulism The condition of walking or performing some other activity without awakening; also known as sleepwalking Sensation The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment Absolute Threshold The minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation. Just-Noticeable Difference the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities. Sensory Adaptation A decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation Weber's Law the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). Synesthesia A condition in which stimulation of one sense generates a simultaneous sensation in another. Retina The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. Blind Spot The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because there are no receptor cells located there. Accommodation In sensation, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina. Trichromatic Theory The theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. Opponent-Process Theory The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red, but others may be stimulated by red and inhibited by green. Fovea The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. Cones Retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or well-lit conditions. Cones detect detail and give rise to color sensations. Afterimage A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed. Rods Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. Ganglion Cells the specialized cells whose axons form the optic nerve, which takes the information to the brain Dichromatism A type of color deficiency in which one cone type is missing or malfunctioning. Monochromatism A type of color deficiency in which two cone types are missing or malfunctioning. Prosopagnosia Also known as face blindness - an inability to recognize faces. Blindsight A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it. Amplitude The height of a light or sound wave. Determines brightness in light and loudness in sound. Wavelength The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Determines hue in light, and pitch in sound. Place Theory In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. Also known as place coding. Volley Theory The theory that groups of neurons in the auditory system respond to a sound by firing action potentials slightly out of phase with one another so that when combined, a greater frequency of sound can be encoded and sent to the brain to be analyzed. Frequency Theory In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. Also called temporal coding. Sound Localization the ability to identify the position and changes in position of sound sources based on acoustic information - relies on the use of both ears. Conduction Hearing Loss A less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. Sensorineural Hearing Loss The most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve. Also called nerve deafness. Olfaction Our sensation of smell Gustation Our sensation of taste olfactory bulb the brain center that processes smell, located below the frontal lobes Papillae rough, bumpy elevations on surface of tongue; sensory receptors that send signals for taste to the brain. Gate Control Theory The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or information coming from the brain. Phantom Limb Sensation the perception of sensations or pain in an amputated limb. Vestibular Sense Our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our equilibrium kinesthesis out movement sense - our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. Natural Selection A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits. Twin Studies A research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait. Resting Potential The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse. Caffeine A stimulant found in coffee, tea, cola drinks, chocolate, and many over-the-counter medications Alcohol A common depressant. Withdrawal The discomfort, distress, and physical symptoms that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. Marijuana A drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations. Reward Center A dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated. Right Hemisphere The half of the cerebrum concerned with spatial cognition, facial recognition, visual processing, and emotional processes, among other functions. Controls the opposite side of the body. somatosensory cortex an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations aphasia impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's or Wernicke's area. cocaine a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria left hemisphere The half of the cerebrum concerned with speech, language, and analytical functions, among other processes. Controls the opposite side of the body. reticular activating system Part of brain stem involved in arousal and attention, sleep and wakefulness, and control of reflexes. cerebral cortex The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. pituitary gland the "master gland" of the body's endocrine system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body. corpus callosum The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them motor cortex An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement Werenicke's area Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe brain plasticity The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience