AP U.S. History exam terms review

Unit one

• Virginia company: first joint-stock company that established and founded Jamestown.

• Powhatan confederacy: collection of native American tribes under the leader of Powhatan, the colonist would've come across them when settling in Jamestown

• John smith: one of the main reasons Jamestown survived, he established a work to eat system to ensure survival.

• John Rolfe: crucial to the alliance between the natives and colonist, marries Pocahontas, discovered a new strain of tobacco which boosted Jamestown economy and he established a new plantation system.

• Opechancanough: Powhatans brother who took over the confederacy. He led attacks on the settlers until the end of the Virginia company.

• William Berkeley: the appointed new governor of Virginia, by the king, who made policies to ensure an alliance with the natives.

• Bacon's rebellion: led by Nathaniel bacon, when him and others were mad about Berkeley's policies because natives were still attack them. He created a militia to first attack the natives then Jamestown driving Berkeley and ended indentured servitude.

• Puritans: router to America because they believed the church could be reformed. Permission to settle in Mass. Bay.

• Pilgrims: believe the church could not be reformed and fled to America because their beliefs were considered illegal. They settled in Plymouth.

• Mayflower compact: was created by the pilgrims to have a self-government with just and equal rights.

• John Winthrop: Puritan at Mass.Bay colony, first governor and started the religious experiment “city on the hill” as an example to what colonies should strive to be. Stressed superiority over natives.

• Roger Williams: founder of providence (Rhode Island) colony, advocated for separation between church and state.

• Ann Hutchinson: interpreted puritan sermons and was thrown out the colony for wavering views on puritan church

• Pequot war: happened because Mass.Bay and Plymouth wanted to eradicate the Pequot tribe, they allied themselves with other rival tribes to win.

• King Philip’s (Metacoms) war: Happened when colonist who no longer needed the help of the natives, led to the eradication of the Narragansett and Wampanoag tribes. Paved the way for English settlements.

• Iroquois league:

• Quakers: Were Protestants who believed everyone had God in them they accepted the natives as people and they broke away from puritan culture founding Pennsylvania.

• William Penn: leader of the quakers and built a new colony in Pennsylvania off of religious freedom, as long as Christian, and political equality which was called the “Holy Experiment”

• Indentured servants: people who couldn’t afford passage to colonies agreed to work for an amount years in a colonist home, in exchange for passage to the colonies.

• Cash crops: crops grown in by the bulk to sell for profit to other colonies and the mother country (tobacco, sugar, and cotton,)

• Headright system: gave people traveling to the colonies free passage in exchange for 50 acres of land as long as they worked the land for as long as possible.

• Triangular trade: Between Africa, North America and the West Indies; they traded one thing for another in at every stop mainly between molasses, rum, and slaves.

• Stono rebellion: when slaves tried to escape to Florida (Spanish colonies) but were caught by South Carolina militia.

• Half-way Covenant: allowed people to have partial membership in the church without being fully converted, gave unconverted people the ability to have political rights.

• John Peter Zenger trial: When Zenger spoke out about government officials, the ending of the trial allowed people the right to speak out against as long as their speaking the truth, freedom of press.

• Salem witch trial: happened in Mass.Bay and highlighted religious tensions in puritan culture, they executed people for different religious beliefs based on the evidence they were witches.

• Enlightenment: A period that was moving away from the divine authority of God and his aspects in every part of life. Solely based on reasoning, science, and individual rights.

• John Locke: His belief were the forefront of enlightenment, he believed in government asking consent of the governed and natural rights. As well as the social contract.

• Benjamin Franklin: known for his education, reasoning and diplomatic relationships. One of the crucial people of the enlightenment.

• The Great Awakening: Emphasized emotional connection to faith, democracy and expansions on religious diversity. Period of religious revival, people are all equal in the eyes of God.

• Jonathan Edward’s: preacher during great awakening who spoke on the wrath of God against humans and personal conversion.

• George Whitefield: More charismatic preacher during the great awakening toured around and spoke on evangelism. He taught people how to follow God away from the church and understand the Bible themselves.

Unit two

• The Mercantile system: made to control colonial trade Britain forced colonist to export raw materials to Britain and imports production from Britain.

• The Navigation acts: were created by Britain to ensure the colonies could only export and import from with Britain. This was created to promote self-sufficiency of British empire by restricting colonial trade only to England.

• The Dominion of New England: which was implemented by the king to enforce the navigation acts on the colonies, made to also centralize power in the New England area.

• Salutary Neglect: When Britain relaxed their rules when it came to the navigation acts allowing the colonist more freedom for trade with other countries and settlements.

• Glorious revolution: When king James was overthrown by William and Mary, this inspired representative governments and limited executive powers in the colonies.

• New France: Was the French colonies in North America including Canada and the Great Lakes. They focused on the fur trade and competed with British colonies for control over certain territories.

• French and Indian war: Result of the territory conflicts between France and English colonies, Natives were allied on both sides. Greatly impacted British colonies and eventually spread to Europe which was called the seven years war.

• The Treaty of Paris: The end of the war where France Ceded Canada and other colonies east of Mississippi River. This expanded British colonial responsibility and led to future conflicts with native Americans.

• Pontiac’s Rebellion: Native American uprising against British expansion to the Ohio river valley, after the French and Indian war.

• Whigs: British political faction that supported parliamentary supremacy which further influenced colonial resistance. Around the time where Britain was tightening their power over the colonies.

• The proclamation of 1763: came shortly after Pontiacs rebellion where king George prohibited the colonies from settling west of the Appalachian mountains. Made to ease tensions but instead enraged colonist because they felt their rights were being restricted.

• Stamp act: Made it illegal for the colonies to purchase any paper or legal document without a stamp or tax from English parliament.

• Sons of liberty: created by the colonist around this time because they wanted to spy and cause mayhem on anyone enforcing British policies. They started to resist British tax and trade regulations.

• Declaratory act: Passed to repeal the stamp act after colonist showed their hatred on the tax. But it still asserted parliament authority to legislate the colonies.

• Townsend act: created to tax American colonies on tea, glass, and paper; this tax was used to pay government officials and also led to the Boston Massacre.

• “LFAPF”: series of essays written by John Dickinson advocating for colonial rights and challenged British tax policies. Influenced public opinion in favor of resistance.

• Sam Adams:founding member of the Sons of Liberty and influential leader in colonial rule. Organized protest against British policies including the Boston tea party.

• Boston Massacre: clash between British soldiers and colonist in Boston. Resulted in deaths of colonist, used to fuel British troops as oppressor and anti-British sentiment.

• Paxton Boys:

• Gaspee incident: Colonist attacked and burned British custom ships in Gaspee Rhode Island. Demonstrated colonial resistance and led image for more acts of defiance.

• Boston tea party:Colonist disguised as natives dumped British tea in Boston harbor to protest tea act and monopoly granted to British east India company. Led to the coercive (intolerable acts) acts, uniting colonies against British rule.

• Coercive acts: Measures taken by Britain as a response to the Boston tea party. By shutting down the port and sending troops to Boston.meant to end colonial resistance but instead paved the way for more rebellion.

• First continental congress: when the colonies sent delegates to Philadelphia to formulate a response to British policies. Asserted colonial rights and grievances.

• Patrick Henry: Virginia delegate who spoke out on colonial resistance including “give me liberty of give me death.” Inspired colonial unity and defiance against British oppression.

• Lexington and Concord: First battles of the American Revolution where colonial militia met with British troops in Massachusetts. Beginning of open hostilities between Britain and the colonies. Led to the revolutionary war.

• Minutemen: Colonial militia units known for rapid movements and readiness to respond to British threats. Crucial role in beginning of the war including Lexington and concord.

• Common sense: Written by Thomas Paine which advocated for American independence from Britain and challenging the monarchy. Mobilized public opinion in favor of independence and republicanism.

• Declaration of Independence: Formal declaration made by continental congress declaring colonies independent from Britain. Primarily written by Thomas Jefferson. Spoke on principles of natural rights and government by consent of the governed.

• George Washington: commander in chief of continental army during revolutionary war. Critical role in leading American forces to victory against British and later became president.

• Tories: Colonist that remained loyal to Britain during war, were persecuted and had the property confiscated during and after the war by Patriots.

• Continental army: unified army of 13 colonies during the war. Led by George Washington against British forces.

• Saratoga:Turning point of the war, led by Washington. Convinced France to formally ally themselves with the American colonies against Britain.

• Treaty of Amity and Commerce: Treaty between the US and France formalizing French support for America. Recognizing America as Independent and established trade and military alliances.

• Marquis de Lafayette: French aristocrat who served as a key ally and general in the continental army. Played crucial role in French support for American cause.

• Joseph Brant: Mohawk leader that allied with British during war. Led natives forces against settlers and played significant role in frontier conflicts.

• Yorktown: finale major battle in the War where American and French forces surrounded British forces in Virginia. British surrendered and ended to war.

• Articles of Confederation: first written constitution of the U.S. adopted in 1781. Weak central government with most reserved to states, eventually replaced by Constitution.

• Virginia statute for religious freedom: Landmark law written by Thomas Jefferson establishing religious freedom and separation of church and state in Virginia. Influenced the first amendment int constitution for religious freedom.

• Alexander Hamilton: founding father and advocate for central government. Key role in economic policy and leading figure in Federalist Party.

• Northwest Ordinance: Legislation that established a system governing and admitting new states for Northwest Territories. Prohibited slavery and emphasized self-government and education.

• Bill of rights: first ten amendments in constitution guaranteeing individual rights and freedoms. Ensured protections of freedom of speech, religion, and due process of law.

• Shay’s Rebellion: armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers and debtors protesting economic injustices and lack of government. Highlighted weakness of AOC, contributed to calls for a stronger central government.

• Annapolis convention: when state delegates met to discuss interstate commerce and trade under the AOC, led to constitutional convention in discussing boarder issues.

• James Madison: key creator of the constitution, drafted the constitution and pushed for it ratification

• Virginia plan: put forward at the convention, favored large states, representation in Congress should be based on population. proposed by Madison,

• New Jersey plan: put forward at convention, favored small states, representation in Congress should be fixed for each state.

• Separation of Powers: divided the governments into its three branches so not one branch had too much power, incorporated into constitution to have checks and balances.

• Anti-Federalist: argued the constitution shouldn't have a strong central government. And wanted individual liberties concern. Demanded inclusion of BOR to protect individual freedoms.

• The Federalist: essays written to promote the ratification of the constitution, addressees concerns of anti-federalist.

• “report on manufactures”: written by Hamilton advocating for federal support on domestic manufacturing and economic development, proposed tariffs to promote growth and economic self-sufficiency.

• Bank of United States: proposed by Hamilton and became Americas first central bank. Became a issue between federalists and democratic-republicans.

• Democratic republican: party founded by Jefferson and Madison, they advocated for States rights and strict interpretation of the constitution. opposed centralized power and Limited federal government in economic affairs.

• Citizen Genet: controversy, Edmond - Charles genet, French ambassador to US during French Revolution. Genet tried to recruit Americans to fight against Britain. Violated US neutrality treading to tensions with France.

• Jay’s treaty: negotiated to restore issues between the US and Britain and revolutionary war. Addressed British territories in northwest territory and trade disputes.

• Treaty of Greenville: between U.S. And natives in the northwest territory after natives defeat. Established peace and defined boundaries. And opened up territory for American expansion.

• Whiskey Rebellion: armed uprising in western Pennsylvania in response to the excise tax on whiskey created by Hamilton. Washington sent troops, which demonstrated the governments’ power to enforce laws and maintain order.

• Pinckney’s treaty: treaty between U.S. Spain which resolved boundary disputes and U.S. Navigation on Mississippi River. Facilitated western expansion.

• Washington Farewell address: given when Washington left office where he advised against alliances with foreign nations. Spoke on importance of avoiding European conflicts.

• XYZ Affair: diplomatic incident between U.S. and France where French agents demanded bribes for negotiations, sparked anti-France sentiment in U.S.

• Alien and Sedition acts: laws passed by congress to restrict immigration and limit freedom of speech. Criticized Democratic - republicans as unconstitutional and infringing on civil liberties.

• Kentucky and Virginia resolutions: written by Jefferson and Madison asserting states rights to nullify unconstitutional federal laws. Affirmed principles of states sovereignty and opposition to federal overreach.

• Judiciary act of 1801: passed by federalist - controlled congress under president Adam's to expand federal court system and created new judicial positions. Was repealed by president Jefferson in 1802.

Unit three

• Marbury v. Madison : established the precedent for judicial review.

• Judicial review: Allowed the government to declare laws unconstitutional, allowed checks and balances in the federal government.

• Barbary pirates: pirates who worked in Northern Africa, they seized American ships. Highlighted Americas vulnerability to pirates and need for strong army.

• Louisiana purchase: negotiated by Monroe and Livingston to purchase land from France and double the size of America. Provided access to Mississippi River and fueled westward expansion.

• Lewis and Clark: Commissioned by Jefferson to explore land from Louisiana purchase and find route to Pacific Ocean. Detailed maps, scientific discoveries, better relationships with natives.

• Impressment: When the British was seizing American sailors and forcing them into the royal navy. Provoked the U.S. and contributed to tensions leading to the War of 1812.

• Chesapeake-Leopard affair: British warship (leopard) boarded the USS Chesapeake impressing American soldiers. Infuriated Americans and strained relationship with Britain.

• Embargo of 1807: Prohibited American ships from trading in foreign ports, devastated American Economy leading to smuggling.

• Tecumseh: Shawnee leader who attempted to unite natives to resist Americans in the Northwest Territories. Allied with British during war of 1812.

• War Hawks: Group of republican congressman that advocated for war against Britain, put pressure on Madison to declare the war of 1812

• Treaty of Ghent: Ended the war of 1812 and restored relationship with Britain but didn’t resolve all issues but established a foundation for Britain and America.

• Andrew Jackson: Defeated the British in the battle of New Orleans making him a national hero. He had aggressive policies toward natives including the Indian removal act and train of tears during his presidency.

• Battle of New Orleans: American victory led by Andrew Jackson against British, happened after the war of 1812 ended. Boosted American morale and established Jackson as a national hero and set himself up to become president.

• Hartford convention: Meeting where Federalist delegates from New England states discuss grievances and amendments to the constitution. Contributed to the decline of the Federalist party and viewed as unpatriotic during wartime.

• Daniel Webster: Nationalist from New Hampshire who was involved in the Webster-Haynes debate of states rights. He also supported the Tariff of 1828.

• Henry Clay: Created the Missouri Compromise, and helped to end the nullification crisis during the war of 1812. The leader of the War Hawks faction in congress. He created the American system which called for an increase in tariffs to support the American economy.

• John C. Calhoun: Supported Henry Clays American system, he was also the vice president under Jackson. Was an advocate for protective Tariffs, free trade, states rights, limited government, and nullification.

• Tariff of 1816: Protective Tariff created to protect the American industry from foreign competition, part of Henry Clays American System to promote self-sufficiency and national unity.

• American System: Economic plan proposed by Henry Clay to promote industry, infrastructure, and a national bank. It focused on on internal improvements such as roads, canals, and bridges for economic growth.

• Panic of 1819: Economic recession caused by a collapse in land speculation and overextension of credit. lead to unemployment, bank failures, debt relief efforts, highlighting the instability of the early American economy.

• Second Bank of the United States: Charted in 1816 to stabilize the currency and regulate state banks, opposed by Jackson which ended up leading to the eventual end of the bank.

• Missouri Compromise: Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state maintaining the balance of power in congress. Drew the 36’30’ line that prohibited slavery north of the line of the Louisiana purchase territory.

• McCulloch v. Maryland: Supreme court case that upholding the constitutionality of the second national bank as well as establishing implied powers, Strengthened the federal government and limited the authority the states had to interfere with federal institution.

• Gibbons v. Ogden: Supreme court case the affirmed the federal governments power to regulate interstate commerce. Clarified the commerce clause of the constitution and expanded federal authority over the economy.

• Monroe Doctrine: Foreign document telling Europeans powers not to colonize or intervene in the Western Hemisphere, asserted American dominance in Western Hemisphere and laid the foundation for U.S. foreign policy for decades.

• South Carolina Exposition and Protest: Calhoun’s response to the Tariff of abominations and advocated for nullification of federal laws deemed unconstitutional. Grew sectional tensions and states rights arguments that would culminate in the nullification crisis.

• Webster-Hayne Debate: Senate debate over states rights, nullification, and federal supremacy. Webster defended union and national authority and Hayne argued for states sovereignty and the right to nullify federal laws.

• Tariff of 1832: passed in response to South Carolinas opposition to the Tariff of Abominations. It reduced some of the Tariffs imposed. South Carolina ended up nullified the tariff and threatened the stability of the Union.

• Force Bill: Allowed Jackson to use military force to enforce federal laws in South Carolinain response to the nullification crisis.

• Osceola: Seminole leader who resisted the Indian removal act and the forced relocation to Florida.

• Trail of Tears: Forced removal of Cherokee and other Natives from their homelands and the southeast To Indian Territory.

• Worcester v. Georgia: Supreme Court where the court rules that Georgias extension of the state law over the Cherokee territory was unconstitutional. Only federal government had authority over the Natives land.

• Nicholas Biddle: President of the second national bank, opposed by Jackson who vetoed the banks recharter, Biddle’s policies were criticized because it favored the wealthy.

• Pet Banks: State banks chosen by Jackson to receive federal deposits after he vetoed the recharter of the second national bank. Contributed to the panic of 1837.

• Eli Whitney: inventor of the cotton gin and later contributed to to development of interchangeable parts. He increased the need for slaves to increase the production rate of cotton because of his invention.

• Erie Canal: connected the Great Lakes to the Hudson River linking the Midwest to the Atlantic. Stimulated economic growth and westward expansion by facilitating the cheaper and faster transport of people and products.

• Samuel Morse: inventor of telegraph and Morse code, leading to rapid transmission of information and expansion of commerce.

• Lowell System:  labor system in textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts. Young, unmarried women from rural areas as factory workers in exchange for housing and structured lifestyle.

• Mill Girls: young, unmarried women who worked in textile mills because of the wages and independence. Faced harsh working conditions and strict supervision.

• “Cult of Domesticity”: idealized vision of Women’s role in domesticity and motherhood. Societal expectations where women’s primary role was in the home and men worked outside.

• Irish Potato Famine: Period of mass starvation and emigration in Ireland, led to death and or immigration to America of millions of Irish people.

• Nativism: ideology favoring the interests of native born citizens over immigrants, prominent as a response to immigration to America from Ireland and Germany.

• Know-Nothing (American) Party: Nativist political party that opposed immigration, mainly catholic immigration, and they sought to limit immigrants political powers.

• Panic of 1837: sever economic depression from bank failures, credit contraction and downturn in the international economy. Widespread unemployment, bankruptcies and suffering of the working class.

• Whig Party:  political party that represented the opposition of the various policies of Jackson and the Democratic Party. Opposed Expansion of executive party, dismantling on the bank of the United States and how he handled the nullification crisis. They wanted protective tariffs, internal improvements, and a strong national bank to promote development and modernization.

• Spoils System: practice of rewarding political supporters with government jobs and contracts. Prominent under Jackson who used it to dismantle the existing patronage system and reward his people.

• Second Great Awakening: Religious revival movement emphasizing personal piety, salvation, and social reform. Rise of Methodism and baptism as well as abolitionism and temperance.

• Charles Finney: revivalist preacher known form his sermons and innovative revival techniques, wanted sinners to publicly repent.

• Burned-Over District: Western New York during the second great awakening, intense religious fervor led to numerous revivals and reform movements. Named Because it was where “hellfire and brimestone” sermons were preached.

• Mormons: Religious movement founded by Joseph Smith and led by Brigham Young,

• Transcendentalism: literary movement emphasizing the inherent goodness of people and nature and the importance on intuition. Rejected formal religion and believed in inherent divinity or humanity and interconnectedness.

• Ralph Waldo Emerson: leading figure in transcendentalist movement who promoted individualism, spiritual growth, and trusting your own tuition. This influenced culture, literature, and generations of writers.

• Henry David Thoreau: Worked for Ralph Waldo Emerson; He wrote a book on his experience on living in a secluded cabin for two years. Believed in civil disobedience and was a big transcendentalist.

• Horace Mann: education reformer and advocate, first secretary of Massachusetts state board of education and worked to improve education by advocating for teacher training, standardized curriculum and compulsory attendance.

• Dorothea Dix: social reformer and advocate for the mentally ill. She revealed conditions of jails and mental asylums leading the widespread reforms and better treatment of the mentally ill.

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton: leading figure in women’s rights movement and advocate for women’s suffrage. One the founders of the Seneca Falls convention and the Declaration of Sentiments. Demanded equal rights for women and suffrage?

• Shakers: Known for celibacy, communal living, pacifism, and extravagant religious practices. Believed in hard works but ultimately failed because of the celibacy and lack of new converts.

• Utopian Communities: Experimental communities based on utopian principles of social and economic equality, communal living and spiritual harmony. Shakers and Brook Farm are example of these societies. Failed due to internal and financial difficulties, they set the stage for broader reform movements and information on social experiment and communal living.

Unit four

• Webster-Ashburton Treaty: Between Britain (Ashburton) and the United States (Webster) which established a boarder between Maine and New Brunswick, settled the boundary of the Minnesota Territory and addressed issues of extradition of fugitives and the suppression of transatlantic slave trade.

• Manifest Destiny: belief that it was the duty and destiny of the U.S. to expand its territory Westward. Fueled Westward expansion.

• Oregon Fever: Described the mass migration of settlers to Oregon country; promise of fertile land, economic opportunities and the ideology of manifest destiny. Established farms, trading post, and towns.

• Overland Trails: routes used to travel overland during westward expansion, consist of Oregon Trail, California trail, and Santa Fe trail.

• John C. Fremont: American explorer, soldier, and politician. Helped map and publicize the Oregon trail, California Trail and other overland routes. General in Mexican-American war and candidate for president.

• Stephen F. Austin: played a key role in colonization of Texas because he brought settlers from the US tot he region. Played role in Texas revolution and served as a Secretary of State of the republic of Texas.

• Battle of the Alamo: fell During Texas revolution and Texan defenders fell. Symbol of Texan Independence and defiance rallying for Texas support.

• Sam Houston: American and politician who led Texan forces to victory at the Battle of San Jacinto, helping Texas to become independent from Mexico.

• Lone Star Republic: Republic of Texas, and independent nations after winning against Mexico. Lone star flag.

• James K. Polk: 11th president of US, expansionist policies and the Fulfillment of Manifest density, Oregon Treaty with Britain’s and the Mexican-American war. Had significant territorial expansion adding Texas, California and the southwest to the US.

• “54⁰40’ or Fight”: Used by expansionists and supporters of Manifest Destiny, latitude coordinates of Oregon country boundary with Britain. Advocated for the annexation of the entire Oregon county.

• Bear Flag Republic: short lived unrecognized that lasted during the Bear flag revolt. Resulted in the establishment California Republic. They later joined the US following the conclusion of the Mexican-American War.

• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Ended the Mexican American war and established the Rio Grande as the boundary between Texas and Mexico. Mexico ceded California, Nevada, Utah, parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming to the US in exchange for 15 million.

• Yeoman Farmers: Independent small scale who owned and cultivated their own land. Represented ideal self sufficiency in American society, particularly the South and Midwest.

• Planters: Wealthy landowners in antebellum south who owned large plantations and controlled the production of cash crops. Dominated southern society and politics holding significant economic and political power. Relied on enslaved labor.

• Denmark Vesey: Enslaved AA who planned a major slave rebellion in South Carolina, organized a network of Slaves and free blacks to seize control of Charleston and escape to Haiti. Was caught, sent to trial and eventually executed.

• Nat Turner: Enslaved AA who led violent slave rebellion in South Hampton county, they killed 55-65 White Americans before they were suppressed by state and Federal troops; leading to harsher slave codes and restrictions on enslaved people in the south.

• American Colonization Society: organization that advocated for the emancipation and resettlement of slaves in Africa. Established Liberia on West coast of Africa to put the destination for Freed AA. Fell through because AA didn’t want to leave the country they were born in and because it was hard for them to adjust to African society.

• Gradualism: Abolitionist strategy advocating for the gradual emancipation of enslaved people over time. Argued the gradual transition would be less disruptive to the economy.

• William Lloyd Garrison: Abolitionist, Journalist and social reformer. Founded the liberator, an abolitionist news paper, one the most influential anti-slavery publications. Vocal advocate for the immediate unconditional emancipation of all enslaved people. Helped organize the American Anti-Slavery society.

• Liberator: one of the first newspapers dedications solely to the abolition of slavery. Shaped public opinion and mobilized support for abolitionist cause.

• Grimke Sisters: abolitionist, feminist and advocates for Women’s rights. Raised in slaveholding family but became outspoken critics of slavery and women’s rights.wrote a lecture extensively on the abolition of slavery and women’s rights.

• Frederick Douglass: Born into slavery and escaped freedom in the north. Became a bestseller and helped expose the brutality and inhumanity in slavery. Founded the North Star and was a powerful advocate for women’s rights and other social reforms.

• Harriet Tubman: Born into slavery and escaped to freedom in the north and became one of the most famous conductors of the Underground Railroad. She also served during the civil war serving as a scout, nurse, and spy for the Union.

• Underground Railroad: Network of secret routes and safe houses used by enslaved AA to escape to freedom to Northern states of Canada. Played crucial role abolitionist movement and fight against slavery. Operated before the civil war.

• Sojourner Truth: Born into slavery and escaped, became a prominent abolitionist, women rights activist and preacher. Known for her powerful speeches that challenged activism challenged racial and gender stereotypes. Became a symbol of courage, resilience and Social Justice.

• Elijah Lovejoy: American abolitionist and newspaper editor known for his efforts to end slavery and promote abolitionist views . His paper was known as the Alton Observer, was killed h a pro slavery mob while defending his newspaper.

• “Gag Rule”: series of congressional rules enacted to prohibit the discussion or debate of anti-slavery petitions in U.S. congress. Made to appease southern slaveholders and prevent controversial issues related to slavery. eventually repealed.

• George Fitzhugh: American social theorist and pro slavery advocate. Argued slavery was more humane and efficient system that pan free labor and that enslaved people were better off the worked in the north. Wrote “sociology for the south”.

• Wilmot Proviso: proposed amendment to a congressional appropriations bill that sought to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. sponsored by the Democratic Party congressman David Wilmot but was repeatedly blocked by southern legislators.

• Popular Sovereignty: Residents of a territory could decide for themselves whether to permit or prohibit slavery. Established through the Kansas-Nebraska act.

• Stephen A. Douglas: American politician and leader of Democratic Party. Senator in Illinois and a key figure in the passing of the Kansas-Nebraska act. Prominent speaker on westward expansion and the transcontinental railroad.

• Free Soil Party: political party dedicated to preventing the expansion of slavery into new territory’s. Free soil, free labor. Became a part of the Republican Party in 1854.

• California Gold Rush: Mass migration and economic boom to California because of the discovery of Gold. Had a profound impact of Californias economy, society, politics, which lead to rapid population growth, urbanization and development of industries.

• Compromise of 1850: Legislative measures passed by Congress to address slavery and territorial expansion. California became a free state, popular sovereignty in New Mexico and Utah territories and a stricter fugitive slave act.

• Fugitive Slave Act: law passed in congress in 1850 as a part of the compromise of 1850. Required people to assist in the capture and return of escaped slaves and return of escaped slaves.

• Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe; showed the harsh realities of slavery and the brutality experienced by enslaved people in the south. Had a profound impact on public opinion and contributed to the abolitionist cause.

• Ostend Manifesto: diplomatic memorandum drafted in Belgium calling the annexation of Cuba by the U.S. Stated that it was in the US best interest and justified the use of force. Didn’t get passed because it was leaked.

• Commodore Mathew Perry: Naval officer that played a key role in opening Japan up to trade. He lead an expedition to Japan and presented the government there with a letter for president Fillmore urging the opening ofJapanese ports to American Ships. Led to the Treaty of Kanagawa.

• Kansas-Nebraska Act: Law passed by Congress in 1854, that organized the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and repealed the Missouri Compromise. Established popular sovereignty and led to violent conflicts in a Kansas known as “bleeding Kansas.”

• John Brown: Abolitionist who advocated and practiced armed insurrection to overthrow the institution of slavery. Led the rapid on Harper’s Ferry.

• “Bleeding Kansas”: period of violent political and social conflict in Kansas territory. Raised from debate over Kansas being a free or slave state; determined by popular sovereignty.

• Dred Scott v. Sanford: Supreme Court case, where a slave sued for his freedom because he lived on the grounds of free territories with his owner. Was ruled the enslaved and or free slaves couldn’t sue because they weren’t citizens.

• Lincoln-Douglas Debates: seven debates between Lincoln and Douglas during Illinois senate campaign. Debates were on slavery and how Lincoln opposed its expansion and Douglas advocated for popular sovereignty. Douglas won the debates but Lincoln grew more popular and well known.

• Freeport Doctrine: Emphasized by Douglas during the Lincoln Douglas debates. Argued that though supreme courts decisions in dred Scott v. Sandford declared that slavery could not be restricted in the territories.

• Fort Sumter: Federal fort located in South Carolina where the first shots of the American Civil War were fired. Fort Sumter fells and it marked the beginning of the civil war and galvanized support for the Union cause in the North.

• Jefferson Davis: politician who served as the president of confederate states of America during the civil war. Led the confederacy through the civil was facing numerous challenged until the fall of the confederacy in 1865.

• Robert E. Lee: confederate general that commanded the army of Northern Virginia in the Civil war. Regarded as one the greatest leaders because of his military leaders. Won many civil war battles until surrender to Ulysses S. Grant.

• Ulysses S. Grant: Union general that served as commanding general of the U.S. army during the Civil War. Had a great military strategy that played a crucial role in the Union army. Later served as 18th president overseeing reconstruction and advocating for the civil rights for AA.

• Battle of Antietam: The bloodiest single day battle in American History during the civil war. Ended in a tactical draw but gave the Union a strategic victory for the Union, gave Lincoln the opportunity to issue the emancipation proclamation.

• Emancipation Proclamation: executive order issued by Lincoln during the Civil war declaring all enslaved people in confederate held territory were to be set free. Paved the way for eventual abolition of slavery in the US.

• Copperheads: Northern democrats who opposed the civil was and advocated for peace with the confederacy. Criticize of Lincoln’s war policies and mainly prominent in the Midwest. Anti-war sentiment and sympathy for the south.

• Radical Republicans: faction of Republican Party that advocated for aggressive policies toward the south particularly regarding reconstruction and civil rights of free slaves. pushed for the passage of reconstruction amendments (13th, 14th, and 15th.

• 13th Amendment: abolished slavery and involuntary servitude except as punishment for a crime. Ended slavery and aimed to secure civil rights and equality for former slaves.

• Battle of Gettysburg: largest and bloodiest battle of the civil war. Union victory highlighted as the turning point of the war because it stopped Robert E. Lees invasion of the North.

• Appomattox: court house in Virginia where confederate general Lee surrendered to Union general Grant. Marked the beginning of reunification and start of reconstruction era.

• Freedmen’s Bureau: established by Congress and was tasked with providing assistance to newly emancipated AA and poor whites in the south. Provided food, housing, medical care, and education. Eventually ended due to opposition from southern democrats and limited funding.

• Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction: issued by Lincoln and outlines his plan for reconstruction of southern states. Offered amnesty to confederate soldiers that pledged loyalty to Union and supported the restoration of southern governments based on loyalty to the Union and abolition of slavery.

• Wade-Davis Bill: Proposed by Radical republicans as an alternative to Lincoln’s reconstruction plan. Required majority of white male citizens in each southern state to take and oath of allegiance to the Union before they could be readmitted. Lincoln vetoed the bill.

• Andrew Johnson: VP under Lincoln and became 17th president after Lincoln assassination. Marked by conflict with congress over reconstruction policies; favored Lincoln’s plan over radical republicans and clashed with them frequently.

• Black Codes: enacted by southern states after the civil war to restrict civil rights and liberties of AA. Maintain white supremacy and control the Labor and Behavior of Freedmen.

• Thaddeus Stevens: Leading radical republican during reconstruction and representative from Pennsylvania. Opponent of president Johnson’s policies and pushed for more aggressive measures to ensure justice and equality for AA.

• Fourteenth Amendment: Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the US including former slaves and guaranteed equal protection under the law. Addressed confederate debt and prohibited confederates officials from holding office.

• Military Reconstruction Act: divided the south into five military districts and imposed martial law on former confederate states that didn’t ratify the 14th amendment. Aimed to enforce civil rights for freedmen, register AA voters and ensure republican control of Southern States government.

• Fifteenth Amendment: prohibited denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Aimed to protect the voting rights of AA men and prevent racial discrimination in voting.

• Carpetbaggers: described Northerners who moved to the south during reconstruction for political or economic gain. Often associated with the Republican Party and previewed as opportunist seeking to exploit the post war south.

• Scalawags: Used to describe southern whites who supported reconstruction policies and the Republican Party. Seen as traitors and accused of collaborating its northern carpetbaggers.

• Credit Mobilier Scandal: Occurred during Grants presidency involving corruption in the construction of the transcontinental railroad. fraudulent manipulation of contracts and misappropriation of funds by member of congress and railroad executives. Tarnished the grant administration and contributed to the disillusionment with government corruption.

• Horace Greeley: Newspaper editors, publisher, and politician who founded the New York Tribune! Advocating for abolitionism, free soil, and civil service reform. Supported Lincoln’s candidacy. Ran for president but lost to Grant.

• Panic of 1873: Financial crisis that began with the collapse of the banking firm jay Cook and avoid. Triggered an economic depression in the U.S. Precipitated by over speculation in railroads, land, and industry. Resulted in unemployment, bankruptcy, foreclosures and a decline in industrial production and agricultural prices.

• Compromise of 1877: political agreement that resolved and disputed the presidential election of 1876 between Hayes and Tilden. Tilden won popular. Was established to determine the outcome of electoral votes and ends up awarding Hayes. Hayes agreed to withdraw troops from the south and end reconstruction leading to establishment of Jim Crow and racial segregation in the south.

Unit five

• New South: the economic, social, and political transformation of the southern U.S. People wanted to modernize the regions economy diversify its industry and move away from reliance on agriculture. Emphasized industrialization, urbanization, and investment in railroads and factories while perpetuating racial segregation.

• Sharecropping: agriculture system that emerged in the south after the civil war as a mean for former slaves and poor whites to earn a living.tenants worked on landowners farms in exchange for tools and the sharing of the crop harvest. This led to many getting trapped in debt due to exploitative practices.

• Redeemers: southern democrats that sought to redeem the south from reconstruction policies. Advocated for white supremacy, states rights, and restoration of tradition southern social and political hierarchy. They implemented policies like Jim Crow.

• Jim Crow Laws: state and local laws enacted in the south to enforce racial segregation and discrimination. Mandated segregation in public facilities, transportation, education etc.

• Mississippi Plan: constitutional amendments and laws in Mississippi to disenfranchise AA voters and consolidate white democratic political power. Included poll taxes, literacy test, and residency requirements.

• Ida Wells: AA journalist and civil rights activist who campaigned against lynching and racial violence. Investigated and documented numerous cases of lynching and exposed the brutal realities of racial injustice.

• Plessy v. Ferguson: landmark supreme court case that upheld constitutionality of racial segregation under “separate but equal”. Legalized segregation and racial discrimination until it was overturned by Brown v. BOE.

• Booker T. Washington: AA educator, author and leader of the Tuskegee institute in Alabama. Advocated for vocational education and economic self-reliance as the key to racial progress and empowerment. Emphasized accommodation and gradualism in race relations telling AA to focus on education and economic advancements; known as the Atlanta Compromise.

• W.E.B. DuBois: AA sociologist, historian, author, and civil rights activist. Co founder of the NAACP and editor of its magazine. Challenged Booker T. Washington’s accommodationist approach.

• George Custer: US army officer and cavalry commander known for his role in American Indian wars and his defeat at the Battle of Little Bighorn. Known for involvement in the civil war and his expeditions against Natives. Defeated at Little Big Horn.

• Great Sioux War: series of conflicts between the US and various native tribes over control of Black Hill (South Dakota). Conflict ended when many natives leaders surrendered and were forced to the Sioux reservations.

• Ghost Dance Movement: Religious movement among the plain tribes who believed that preforming the dance would bring the return of buffalo and restoration of their traditional life. US government viewed it as dangerous and tried to suppress it leading to the battle of wounded knee.

• Dawes Severalty Act: Passed by congress and aimed to assimilate natives into mainstream America. Broke up tribal lands and allotted individual acres of land to natives families. Tried to encourage private land ownership, agriculture, and assimilation into American culture.

• Second Industrial Revolution: period of rapid industrialization and technological innovation. characterized by expansions of industries in steel, oil, electricity, and chemicals as well as new technologies. such as telephone, lightbulb, and internal combustion engine. know for changing our economy, society, and leading to maa production and urbanization.

• Jay Gould: Gained control over several railroads through financial manipulation and aggressive business practices. involved in attempts to manipulate the stock market.

• Cornelius Vanderbilt: American industrialist that made his fortune through shipping and railroads. helped develop moder railroad systems and lines that run through new york.

• John D. Rockefeller: American business magnate who founded the standard oil company. Implemented in horizontal inter gratin by consolidating control over refineries, pipeline and distribution networks. His business practices did eventually lead to the breaking up of standard oil through antitrust legislation.

• Standard Oil Company of Ohio: Rockefeller original oil refinery. It grew rapidly through Rockefeller horizontal integration and expanded throughout the US. It became the Standard oil trust which controlled all major oil production.

• Andrew Carnegie: industrialist that made his business in steel. Founded Carnegie steel company and most of the profitable steel company’s in the world. Created vertical integration which helped cut cost and increase production. Sold his steal company to J.P. Morgan in 1901.

• J. Pierpont Morgan: Prominent American Financer and banker, founded J.P. Morgan and co and helped shape American finance and industry. Involved in numerous acquisitions including U.S. steel and multiple railroads.

• Molly Maguires: secret organization that operated coal mining regions of Pennsylvania. Formed by Irish immigrants to fight against oppressive working conditions, low wages and exploitation by mine owners. Had many acts of rebellion against other mines and started many violent conflicts known as the Molly Maguires Wars. Was soon arrested, tried, and executed.

• Great Railroad Strike of 1877: nation wide labor protest and strike by railroad workers. Response to wage cuts by several major railroad companies. Thousands of workers were disrupting transportation and commerce, the strike was suppressed by state federal authorities resulting in numerous casualties and arrest.

• Knights of Labor: one of the largest and most influential labor organizations in the U.S. advocated for interest of all workers regardless of skill, race, or gender. Promoted for worker solidarity, collective bargaining, and social reform (8 hour work day and abolition of child labor). Declined after the Haymarket affair because of internal divisions in the organization.

• Haymarket Affair: violent confrontations between labor protestors and police in Chicago. Occurred during a rally in support of striking workers want the 8 hour work day. Barb was detonated near the end of the rally resulting in chaos, violence and the police clashed with the protestors. Sparked wave of anti-labor sentiment and crackdown on labor organizations.

• Samuel Gompers: American labor leader and founder of the American Federation of labor. immigrated from England and became influential in labor activism and backed the leader of the cigar makers’ Union. Advocated for rights for workers, collective bargaining, and better working conditions; focused on particle and achieve able goals.

• American Federation of Labor: One of the first and most influential labor federations in the U.S. aimed to unite skilled workers into trade-specific unions and negotiate better wages, hours, and working conditions. Organized strikes, advocated for labor legislation and shaped labor management relations.

• Homestead Strike: major labor disputes that occurred at Homestead Steel works. Started over cut wages and working conditions between the Amalgamanted Association of iron, Steel workers, and Carnegie steel. Company locked out their workers after negotiations broke down and hired Pinkertons. A violent confrontation broke out resulting in casualties; the governor of Pennsylvania sent militia that broke the strike which led to the defeat of the Union and decline of labor activism. Significant because it highlighted tensions between labor unions and capital as well as the use of force to suppress organizations.

• Eugene V. Debs: American labor leader, socialist and five time presidential candidate. Labor organizer and co founder of the American Railway Union (organized the Pullman strike). Advocate for workers’ rights, socialism, and economic justice. Leading role in the socialist party.

• Pullman Strike: Nation wide railroad strik centered on the Pullman Company’s manufacturing plant and company town. Sparked because of wage cuts and harsh working conditions. They boycotted the railway cars and disrupted rail transportation. Government sent troops and obtained a court injunction against the strikers leading to a clash between strikers and troops.

• Mother Jones: Irish American labor organizer, had a maternal concern for the well being of the workers and their families. Organized mine workers and advocate for workers’ rights, child labor laws, fair wages, and was involved in numerous labor strikes and campaigns.

• Social Democratic Party: political party that advocated for the social democracy’s and progressive reform. Addressed social and economic inequality through government intervention, social welfare programs and labor rights. Had the support of workers, immigrants, and progressives.

• Industrial Workers of the World: radical labor union founded in 1905. Sought to organize all workers regardless of skill, race or gender, into one big Union that’ll overthrow capitalism. Known for militant tactics and played roles for workers in mining, logging, and agriculture. Had conflicts with government authorities, employers, and rival unions.

• ‘Big Bill’ Haywood: labor leaders and founding member of the industrial workers of the world.organized miners, lumberjacks and other workers as well as advocated for industrial unionism and direct action. Involved in several high profile labor disputes. Known for his fiery speeches and commitment to the cause of working class revolution.

• Political Boss: powerful political leader who exercised control over political machines or organizations. Significant influence over local politics, government appointments, and patronage; they used their supporters and allies to maintain power. Engaged in corrupt practices in exchange for favors.

• Ellis Island: Island that served as the primary immigration station for immigrants entering the country. Millions, primarily Europeans, passed through to seek refuge, opportunity and a better life. Underwent medical exams and legal inspections to determine eligibility.

• Nativist: political ideology that prioritizes the interest of native born or established inhabitants over immigrants.advocated for policies to restrict immigration, promote assimilation and protect the culture and economic interest of dominant population. fueled by fears of cultural change, economic competition and perceived threats to national identity.

• Chinese Exclusion Act: Prohibited the immigration of Chinese Laborers. First major federal law to restrict immigration based on nationality or race. Suspended immigration for ten years and prohibited those already in the U.S. from becoming citizens.

• Frederick Law Olmsted: best known for his pioneering of landscape architecture and urban planning. Designs had profound impacts on the development of urban parks and public spaces. Designed Central Park and was a vocal advocate for social reform and public health initiatives.

• Social Darwinism: The Application of darwin’s ideas to humans believed individuals and social groups were inherently unequal and success and wealth were indicators of genetic superiority. Justified Laissez-faire, capitalism, imperialism, and social inequality.

• Herbert Spencer: advocated for social Darwinism, coined the term survival of the fittest and popularized the concept of evolution in his writings. led according natural laws with progress occurring through competing and adaptation.

• William James: know as the founder of pragmatism. Leading figure in philosophy of religion, exploring nature of religious experiences and relationship between faith and reasoning. Worth “The Principles of Psychology”

• Pragmatism: Emphasized the particle consequences of beliefs and actions. Argued that the truth or meaning of an idea should be judged by its particle effects and usefulness in achieving goals or solving problems. Rejects absolute of dogmatic beliefs in favor of inquiry experimentation and adaptation to changing circumstances.

• John Dewey: One of the founders of pragmatism and leading figure in progressive education, and advocated for experiential learning, hands on activities, and student centers approaches. Believed education should be responsive to the needs and interest of students. Influenced educators and shaped developmental of progressive education movements.

• Mark Twain: Pen name of Samuel Langhorne Clemens. Best know for his book “adventures of huckleberry berry Finn”. Wrote humorous and Saturn observations of American society and culture and was a prominent critic of social injustice, racism, and imperialism.

• Social Gospel: Movement within American Protestantism that sought to apply Christian principles to social problems and reform. Believed Christianity should be concerned with addressing poverty, inequality, and injustice in society. Inspired settlement houses, social welfare programs and progressive reforms aimed to improve the lives of the poor and marginalized.

• Jane Addams: social reformer, suffragist, and pacifist best known as the found of Hull House. Leading figure of progressive era and advocated for social reform and women’s rights, at hull house she provided a range of social services to immigrant communities; things like child care, education, healthcare, and cultural enrichment programs.

• Settlement Houses: community centers established in urban areas to provide social services and support immigrant and low income communities. Inspired by social gospel and aimed to address social, economic, and cultural need of urban residents. Often middle class volunteers worked at settlement houses and provided education, childcare, healthcare, etc.

• Gilded Age: period characterized by rapid industrialization, economic growth, and huge displays of wealth alongside widespread social inequality, political corruption and labor unrest. It consisted of Industrialization and economic growth, rapid urbanization, social inequality, political corruption, labor unrest and strikes, cultural and intellectual flourishing. On the surface it was a period of unprecedented wealth and prosperity but beneath was deep social, economic and political problems.

• ‘Boss’ Tweed: Powerful political leader and the head of Tammany Hall. Used his influence to control over Tammany Hall to get wealth through corruption, kickbacks, and graft. Engaged in political patronage and election fraud. Exposed by investigative journalist Thomas Nast which led to his downfall.

• Tammany Hall:Political organization and machine in the Democratic Party and had control over politics in state and national elections. Got its power through patronage, bribery, and electoral fraud. Controlled government appointments contracts and service while providing social services to immigrants and the poor in exchange for political support.

• ‘City Machines’: political organizations within urban areas that operated similarly to Tammy a hall. Characterized by their control over municipal government, political patronage and corruption,Provided social service and assistance to constituents in exchange for loyalty and votes. Successful for provide social services by critiqued for the undemocratic practices.

• James G. Blaine: Republican who severed as US representative, senator, and Secretary of State.know for trying the enhance Republican policies like protective tariffs and civil service reforms. Best remember for his involvement in the 1884 election being Republican nominee but lost to Grover Cleveland.

• Stalwarts: A faction in the Republican part and supported political machines Lee by Roscoe Conklin and opposed civil reform. Favored traditional spoils system. Clashed with reform-minded faction of the Republican Party.

• Mugwumps: Faction in the Republican Party who broke away because of issues of political corruption and civil service reform. The name was used sarcastically to describe republicans who caliber to be too principled to engage in political corruption. Supported democratic candidate Cleveland because of his lack of corruption. They highlighted the growing dissatisfaction with political corruption.

• Granger Movement: coalition of farmers that emerged to address the economic challenges facing agricultural communities. Sought to promote the interest of farmers through education, cooperative purchasing and political advocacy. Wanted government regulation of railroad rates, grain elevators and the establishment of agriculture colleges. Laid the groundwork for future agrarian reform movements like the farmers alliance and populist party.

• Farmers Alliances: grassroots organizations formed by farmers to address economic challenges and grievances facing agriculture communities. Advocated for agrarian reforms including government regulations of railroad rates, currency inflation, and debt relief for farmers. Movement grew with the decrease in crop prices, high transportation cost and mounting debts. Significant role in mobilizing rural votes and shaping political discourse, laying the ground work for emergence of the populist party.

• Populist Party: also known as the people’s party were the voice of agrarian and labor interest. Formed from the farmers alliances, advocated for wide range reforms like free coinage of silver, government ownership of railroads and utilities and the implementing of a progressive income tax. Declined because of internal division and opposition from established political parties.

• Mary Elizabeth Lease: prominent voice of populist movement, gained fame from her fiery speeches and populist rhetoric advocating for agrarian reform, women’s suffrage and economic justice.called for resistance against powerful corporate interest and political corruption.

• Panic of 1893: triggered by over speculation in railroad industry, labor unrest, agricultural overproduction, and running off of the gold supply. Collapsed major railroads, banks, and business and led to a sharp decline in stocks and bank failures.

• Coxey’s Army: protest movement led by Jacob Corey, populist politician. Consisted by a group of unemployed workers who marched on Washington to demand government intervention to create jobs and relieve economic hardship. Helped pave the way for further government intervention in the economy for the future even though it didn’t achieve everything it wanted.

• William Jennings Bryan: leader of the populist and democratic parties in the late 19th century. Best know for his “cross of Gold” speech where he advocated for free coinage of silver as a solution to the nations economic problems. Advocated for agrarian and populist reforms.

• William McKinley: 25th president of the U.S. Presidency was marked by a period of economic prosperity and expansionism which was fueled by industrial growth, tariffs and overseas expansion. Second term was cut short when he was assassinated in 1901.

• 1896 Election: Between William Jennings Bryan, democrat, and William McKinley, Republican. Dominated by economic issues specifically the gold standard versus using gold and sliver a currency. McKinley one backseat of his part in supporting industrialist, bankers, and business interest as well as his fundraising campaigns. Marked the end of the populist movement and solidified that Republican Party in national politics.

Unit six

• Alfred Thayer Mahan: argued that maritime supremacy was essential to national power and prosperity. Emphasized the importance of naval strength, strategic bases and commercial fleets in securing global domination.

• Boxer Rebellion: anti-foreign and anti- Christian uprising in China. They opposed foreign influence and sought to expel western powers. Targeted foreigners and Chinese Christians and led to the Boxer protocol which imposed

• de Lome Letter: A letter written by the Spanish ambassador that was intercepted by and published by American newspaper. Enrique Dupuy De Lome wrote about President McKinley being weak and a seeker of public admiration. Outraged Americans called for American intervention in Cuba and this was the ultimate lead up to the Spanish American war.

• Emilio Aguinaldo: Filipino revolutionary leader who played a central role in the Philippine revolution against Spanish colonial rule. He initially welcomed American support but didn’t support the idea of American colonization. Led Filipino resistance against the American forces during Philippine-American war.

• Great White Fleet: the United States navy’s fleet of battleships that embarked on a highly publicized world tour. Sent to showcase American naval power, demonstrated Americas emergence as a naval superpower and bolstered international prestige and diplomatic relations.

• Jingoism: aggressive form a nationalism characterized by extreme patriotism, militarism, and advocacy of aggressive foreign policy. Prioritized national interest above diplomatic compromise and advocated for assertive and confrontational approaches to foreign affairs. Shaped American attitudes toward imperialism during the Spanish American War and the acquisition of overseas territories.

• Open Door Policy: diplomatic initiative proposed by U.S. to promote equal access to Chinas markets and prevent the colonization of China by foreign powers. Was a response to concerns over the partitioning of China into spheres of influence by Europeans powers and Japan, this threatened American commercial interest in China. Laid the groundwork for increased American involvement in the region.

• Panama Canal: Artificial waterway that connects the Atlantic Oceans to the Pacific Ocean across Panama in Central America. Reduced travel time and transportation cost and transformed global trade and transportation routes. US acquired the rights from the French company that had attempted to build it in the 16th century.

• Philippine-American War: fought between the U.S. and Filipino revolutionaries following the Spanish American war and the Treaty of Paris, ceded the Philippines to the U.S. Filipino resistance wanted to be independent, was led the Emilio Aguinaldo and a originally fought against Spanish colonial rule. Marked by brutal tactics on both sides and American forces prevailed.

• Platt Amendment: outlined the conditions for withdraws of US troops from Cuba following the Spanish American War and the establishment of Cuban independence. Imposed restrictions on Cubas sovereignty and effectively made the Island a protectorate of the U.S. the Amendment authorized the U.S. to intervene militarily in Cuban affairs to protect American interest, and lease naval base in Cuba.

• Queen Liliuokalani: Last reigning monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Wanted to strengthen Hawaiian sovereignty and restore power to the monarchy. But she was met with opposition from American and European troops. American and European troops overthrew her and established a provisional government.

• Roosevelt Corollary: Addition to the Monroe doctrine articulated by President T. Roosevelt in his state of the union address. It asserted the US’s tight to intervene in internal affairs of Latin American countries to maintain stability and protect American interests. Justified American interventionism in response to perceived threats to regional security, economic stability, or the enforcement of international agreements. Expanded the scope of A Erica intervention and influence in Latin America.

• Russo-Japanese War: conflict between Russian Empire and the empire of Japan over rival territorial and strategic interests in East Asia. Russia and Japan wanted control over Korea and Manchuria. Japanese made a surprise attack on a Russian naval base marking the beginning of hostilities. Ended in 1905 with the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth which was brokered by President T.Roosevelt. The treaty recognized Japanese territorial gains and established Japan as a major regional power.

• U.S.S. Maine: American naval ship sent to Havana, Cuba ton protect American interest during a period of civil unrest. The ship exploded and Sank in the harbor, widely believed to have been caused by a Spanish mine but sparked U.S. outrage and contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish American war led to American intervention in Cuba and the Philippines.

• Yellow Journalism: written by sensationalist and often exaggerated reporting practices, mainly associated with newspapers. Used lurid headlines, sensational stories and political propaganda. It aimed to attract readership and increase newspaper sales through sensationalism and emotional manipulation. Played a significant role in shaping public opinion and influencing government policy particularly during the Spanish American war.

• Muckrakers: investigative journalist who exposed corruption, social injustices and abuses of power in American society. They uncovered societal problems and high advocates for reform. They targeted a wide range of issues including corruption, labor abuses, urban poverty, environmental degradation and corporate malfeasance. Helped raise public’s awareness of social problems and paved the way for progressive reforms.

• How the Other Half Lives: written by Jacob Riis to shed light on living conditions of the urban poor in NYC’ tenements and slums, using first hand observations and investigative reporting. Riis vivid descriptions and photos spurred public outrage which led to housing reforms, sanitation improvements and social welfare programs.

• Robert La Follette: progressive politician and reformer who served as a governor of Wisconsin and US senators. Advocated for government intervention to regulate big business, protect workers’ rights, and promote social welfare. He implemented progressive reforms and fought for progressive causes.

• Hepburn Act: legislation passed by the U.S. congress that strengthened the powers of interstate commerce commission to regulate railroad rates and practices. Aimed to curb the abuses of the railroad industry and ensure fair and responsible freight rates for shippers and consumers.expanded the authority of the ICC to set maximum railroad rates, regulate railroad mergers and acquisitions, and investigate unfair business practices. It protected consumers from exploitation and marked a turning point in the federal government efforts to regulate monopolies.

• The Jungle: Written by Upton Sinclair and exposed the harsh and unsanitary conditions of the American meatpacking industry; it also revealed the exploitation of immigrant workers. Led to the creation of the Pure Food and Drug act and the Meat inspection Act of 1906.

• Forest Reserve Act: legislation signed into law by Cleveland, it authorized the President of the U.S. to set aside public forest lands as reserves and to withdraw them from public domain . It was championed by conservationist and environmentalists.

• Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy: conflict between the administration of Taft revolving around the management of public lands and natural resources. Tafts secretary of the interior, Ballinger, opened lands in Alaska for private development; this opposed by Pinchot who believed the lands would be preserved for public use. Ballinger was accused of using corporate interest over conservation and public welfare. Highlighted tensions between conservationist and advocates or resource exploitation which grew the rift within the Republican Party.

• Sixteenth Amendment: granted congress the power to levy an income tax on individuals and corporations. Before congress relied primarily on tariffs and excise taxes to generate revenue. The amendment provided more reliable and progressive source of revenue which allowed federal government to fund essential programs.

• “Bull Moose” Party: the progressive party formed by former president T. Roosevelt when he failed to secure the Republican nomination. Advocated for a wide range of progressive reforms. Lost in 1912 election to Wilson.

• New Freedom: progressive domestic platform of Wilson which was outlined by his presidential campaign and implemented during his presidency. Aimed to promote economic competition, limit power of big corporations and reform financial system. It included anti- trust legislation to break monopolies, tariff reform to lower barriers to international trade, banking reform to create a more decentralized and competitive banking system and support for small businesses and farmers. Marked significant expansion of federal government rolls in regulating the economy and promoting social justice.

• New Nationalism: progressive political platform advocated for T.Roosevelt during his unsuccessful bid for the presidency. Called for a more active role in federal government in regulating economy, promoting social welfare, and curbing the power of big business. Believed h big business was a threat to democracy. Laid groundwork for progressive reforms during Wilson’s administration.

• Underwood-Simmons Tariff: also known as revenue act of 1913 signed into law by Wilson. Reduced tariff tax intended to promote free trade, lower consumer prices, and stimulate economic growth by making foreign goods more affordable. Established a more equitable system of taxation and shifted the burden away from tariffs and excise tax and onto individual and corporate incomes.

• Federal Reserve Act: established reserve system, the central banking system of the U.S. signed into law by Wilson. Addressed financial panics, stabilized banking system and regulated the nations money. Operated as a decentralized network of regional reserve banks overseen by a central board of governors. Represented a significant expansion of federal authority over nations banking and monetary system.

• Federal Trade Commission 1914: tasked with promoting consumer protection and preventing anticompetitive business practices that could harm consumers or undermine fair competition in the marketplace responsible for enforcing federal antitrust laws, investigate prosecuting unfair or deceptive business practices Nan’s promoting competition through advocacy and education. Played crucial role in safeguarding consumers rights and maintaining a competitive and dynamic economy.

• Clayton Anti-Trust Act 1914: aimed to strengthen existing antitrust laws and promoting fair competition. Sought to address perceived shortcomings in Sherman antitrust act of 1890 by prohibiting specific business practices deemed anticompetitive. Introduced legal protections for consumers and competitors injured by anticompetitive behavior.

• Francisco (“Pancho”) Villa: Mexican revolutionary leader known for his charisma, military, prowess and populist appeal. Key figure when struggling against dictator of Mexican president Victoriano Huerta.

• Dollar Diplomacy: foreign policy by Taft and Knox which aimed to promote U.S. economic interest and expand American influence in Latin America and east Asia through economic invest and financial leverage. Wanted to replace military intervention and political coercion with economic incentives and investment opportunities. Encourage American banks and corporations to invest capital in foreign countries. Criticized for prioritizing US economic interest over democratic principles and human rights. Represented a shift in US foreign policy towards a more commercially oriented approach to international relations.

• Lusitania: British ocean liner that was torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine. Resulted in loss of lives in Americans and Brit’s and was the major turning point in public opinion and the influenced Americas entry into the war. Fueled anti-German sentiment in U.S. and led to heightened tensions between US and Germany. Didn’t immediately lead to Americas involvement in WW1 but contributed to a growing sense of outrage.

• Sussex Pledge: agreement between German empire and the U.S. in response to the sinking of the French passenger steamer SS Sussex by a German submarine. Germany promised to modify unrestricted submarine warfare and give adequate warning before an attack on merchant and passenger ships. Didn’t fully satisfy the U.S.’ demands and later on German broke the agreement leading to America declaring war.

• Zimmermann Telegram

• Liberty Bonds 

• Selective Service Act

• War Industries Board 

• Committee on Public Information 

• Espionage, Sabotage, and Sedition Acts 

• Fourteen Points 

• League of Nations 

• Henry Cabot Lodge 

• “Irreconcilables” 

• Red Scare