Study Notes on the Late Republic and Transition to Empire

SOURCES AND LITERATURE

• Late Republican sources significantly improved post-60s BCE, especially Cicero's speeches, philosophical writings, and private correspondence (notably with Titus Pomponius Atticus).
• Private letters provide frank commentary on politics and personalities, often confidential in nature.
• Julius Caesar published his war narratives, aiming to portray himself favorably.
• Important biographies include those by Plutarch (e.g., of Pompey, Crassus, Caesar, Cicero) and Suetonius, both writing in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries AD.
• Chapter Nine of the source material discusses the growth of non-historical literature.

POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST (62 BCE)

• Pompey returned with unprecedented wealth and triumph, having achieved significant military victories.
• His conquest of the East included the establishment of cities and enhancements to Roman provinces.
• He collected around 20,000 talents in gold and silver (~480 million sesterces) and a substantial increase in annual revenue for Rome.
• Following a grand triumph in 61 and subsequent monument building (e.g., theater complex in Campus Martius), Pompey intended to formalize his eastern acquisitions through the Senate.

POLITICAL STALEMATE IN ROME (61-60 BCE)

• Upon returning to Brundisium, Pompey disbanded his army, signaling disinterest in seizing power.
• His priorities were Senate ratification of eastern agreements and land settlements for veterans.
• Frustrations mounted as Senate requests for land distribution were obstructed, notably by Cato and other Optimates.
• Attention was diverted to a scandal involving Publius Clodius Pulcher, which showcased the political turmoil of the time.

RISE OF CAESAR IN ROME (59 BCE)

• Caesar and Bibulus became consuls; Caesar sought reforms including land redistribution favoring veterans.
• He faced opposition and resorted to the Tribal assembly for enactment despite Senate filibustering tactics led by Bibulus.
• Caesar took decisive steps to assert control, pushing through several measures directly supporting his allies and confirming Pompey’s Eastern arrangements.
• His populist tactics solidified his support among the Roman people.

THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE (60-59 BCE)

• Political alignments formed between Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar aimed at collective support in the Senate.
• The alliance allowed them to exert influence over political processes and block adversaries like Cato from enacting initiatives harmful to their interests.
• Cicero was approached but declined participation in the Triumvirate, preferring traditional political collaboration.

CAESAR'S VICTORY AND RISE TO POWER (58-45 BCE)

• Following his campaign in Gaul, Caesar returned to Rome to a triumphant welcome but faced significant political maneuvering to secure his standing.
• He maneuvered through legislative obstructions, revealing the growing tensions between him and the Senate.
• As tensions escalated, he pragmatically chose to challenge Republican norms, seeing the Senate's obstructionism as a threat to state stability.

THE END OF THE REPUBLIC

• The constant struggle for power, illustrated through Caesar’s bold actions and the political machinations of Pompey and Crassus, ultimately led to civil war.
• Cicero’s speeches reflected the profound disillusionment with the Senate and the elite.
• Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon marked a decisive break, registering his commitment to alter the political order. His forces quickly gained control amid a populace eager for stability after years of turmoil.

CAESAR'S DICTATORSHIP (49-44 BCE)

• Caesar's dictatorship was characterized by sweeping reforms, debt relief initiatives, and efforts to stabilize the economy.
• The establishment of a new calendar and various public works underscored his intent to reshape Roman governance.
• Despite successes, internal opposition persisted, culminating in fear over his accumulation of power, leading to his assassination by a coalition of senators on the Ides of March 44 BCE.