THE UNHEALTHY CHESAPEAKE

• 17th Century: Settlers in the Chesapeake (Virginia and Maryland) faced severe disease conditions.

  • Malaria, Dysentery, Typhoid: Major diseases that reduced life expectancy.

  • Life Expectancy: Newcomers had their life expectancy cut by ten years.

  • Mortality Rates: About half of those born in early Virginia and Maryland did not survive past their twentieth birthday. Few lived to see their fortieth or fiftieth birthday, particularly women.

• Immigration and Gender Imbalance:

  • 1650: Men outnumbered women nearly six to one in the Chesapeake colonies.

  • End of the 17th Century: Men outnumbered women by three to two.

  • Most immigrants were single men in their late teens and early twenties.

• Family Life:

  • Fragility:

    • Many marriages were short-lived due to the high mortality rates. Few children grew up with both parents.

    • Grandparents were rare due to high death rates.

  • Pregnancy and Marriage:

    • In one Maryland county, more than a third of all brides were pregnant at marriage.

• Recovery and Growth:

  • Acquired Immunity: Native-born inhabitants developed immunity to diseases.

  • Increased Family Formation: More women arrived, leading to more stable family structures.

• Population Statistics by 1700:

  • Virginia: Most populous colony with approximately 59,000 people.

  • Maryland: Third largest colony with about 30,000 people (after Massachusetts).

THE TOBOCCO ECONOMY

• Tobacco Cultivation:

  • Early 17th Century: Chesapeake settlers planted tobacco intensively, often prioritizing it over food crops.

  • 1630s: Chesapeake Bay exports approximately 1.5 million pounds of tobacco annually.

  • End of 17th Century: Tobacco production reaches nearly 40 million pounds annually.

  • Consequences: Intensive tobacco farming depletes soil, driving settlers to seek new land and leading to increased conflicts with Native Americans.

• Labor Shortages and Solutions:

  • Challenges:

    • Native Americans were not a sustainable labor source due to high mortality rates from diseases.

    • African slaves were costly and less commonly used at this time.

    • Population growth from natural reproduction was too slow to meet labor demands.

  • Indentured Servants:

    • Many English displaced farmers became indentured servants, trading several years of labor for transatlantic passage and “freedom dues” (corn, clothing, and sometimes land).

• Headright System:

  • 1618: Virginia introduces the headright system to encourage labor importation.

  • Terms: Anyone who paid for a laborer's passage received 50 acres of land.

  • Impact:

    • Landownership benefits went primarily to the masters, not the servants.

    • Wealthy planters expanded their estates significantly, becoming influential figures in southern agriculture and commerce.

• Indentured Servants:

  • By 1700: About 100,000 indentured servants had been brought to Virginia and Maryland, constituting over three-quarters of European immigrants to these colonies.

  • Conditions:

    • Indentured servants faced harsh working conditions and often had limited prospects for land ownership post-servitude.

    • With land becoming scarcer, masters increasingly withheld land grants from freedom dues.

    • Misbehavior could result in extended terms of service, and even after completing their servitude, many freed servants struggled with poverty and had to work for their former masters at low wages.

FRUSTRATED FREEMEN AND BACON’S REBELLION

• Late 1600s: Chesapeake region faced growing discontent among footloose, impoverished freemen, mostly single young men struggling with land scarcity and a shortage of women.

• 1670: Virginia assembly disfranchised many landless individuals, accusing them of lacking interest in the country and causing disturbances at elections. Governor William Berkeley expressed his frustration over ruling a predominantly poor, indebted, and armed population.

• 1676: Nathaniel Bacon, a twenty-nine-year-old planter, led a rebellion against the colonial government. Bacon and his followers, many of whom were displaced frontiersmen, were angered by Governor Berkeley’s policies and his failure to address Indian attacks on frontier settlements.

• 1676: Bacon and his rebels attacked Native Americans, burned Jamestown, and caused widespread chaos. Bacon died of disease the same year, leading to the brutal suppression of the rebellion by Berkeley, who executed over twenty rebels.

• Charles II criticized Berkeley’s excessive use of violence, noting the high number of executions compared to those in England.

• Post-Rebellion: The unrest highlighted the tensions between landless former servants and wealthy planters. Planters began to increasingly rely on African slaves as a more stable and controllable labor source.

COLONIAL FREEDOM

• 1619: First Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia. By 1670, about 2,000 Africans lived in Virginia, comprising a small percentage of the population.

• 1670: The Virginia assembly disfranchised landless freemen, including many impoverished former servants, as tensions rose between the wealthy planters and the poor.

• 1676: Nathaniel Bacon, a twenty-nine-year-old planter, led Bacon's Rebellion against Governor William Berkeley. The rebellion was fueled by frustrations over land scarcity, Indian attacks, and Berkeley's monopolization of the fur trade. Bacon's followers, including many frontiersmen, attacked both friendly and hostile Indians, and ultimately chased Berkeley from Jamestown, setting it on fire. Bacon died of disease, and Berkeley retaliated with harsh measures, executing more than twenty rebels.

• 1680s: Rising wages in England diminished the availability of indentured servants. Consequently, African slaves began to outnumber white servants among new arrivals in the plantation colonies.

• 1698: The Royal African Company, which had a crown-granted monopoly on the slave trade, lost its exclusive rights. This led to a surge in the slave trade, with more than 10,000 Africans arriving in America in the decade following 1700.

• By 1750: Virginia's black population constituted nearly half of its total population, while in South Carolina, blacks outnumbered whites two to one.

• Middle Passage: Slaves were captured by African coastal tribes and sold to European and American traders. The journey across the Atlantic, known as the "Middle Passage," was brutal, with death rates as high as 20%.

• 1662: Virginia enacted the first slave codes, formally codifying the status of blacks as property for life. These laws marked the beginning of racialized slavery, including prohibitions on teaching slaves to read or write and denying freedom through Christian conversion.

• Late 17th century: The legal and social distinctions between slaves and indentured servants became increasingly racialized, reinforcing the economic and racial foundations of American slavery.

SOUTHERN SOCIETY

• 1619: The first Africans were brought to Jamestown, marking the beginning of slavery in Virginia.

• 1670: Virginia's assembly disfranchised landless freemen, causing tensions among the population.

• 1676: Nathaniel Bacon led Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia, a revolt of landless freemen and frontiersmen against Governor William Berkeley’s policies.

• 1680s: Rising wages in England decreased the availability of indentured servants, and black slaves began to outnumber white servants among new arrivals to the plantation colonies.

• 1698: The Royal African Company lost its monopoly on the slave trade, leading to a surge in slave imports by enterprising Americans, particularly from Rhode Island.

• 1700s: The number of African slaves in North America rose steeply, with more than 10,000 arriving in the decade after 1700.

• By 1750: Blacks comprised nearly half of Virginia’s population and outnumbered whites two to one in South Carolina.

• By 1720: The proportion of female slaves in the Chesapeake region increased, allowing for the development of stable family life and self-perpetuating slave culture.

• Gullah: A unique language developed in South Carolina’s sea islands, blending English with several African languages including Yoruba, Ibo, and Hausa.

• 1712: A slave revolt in New York City led to the deaths of twelve whites and the execution of twenty-one blacks.

• 1739: The Stono Rebellion in South Carolina, involving more than fifty slaves, aimed to escape to Spanish Florida but was suppressed by local militia.

• Early 18th century: The Southern social structure saw a widening gap, with great planters like the Fitzhughs, Lees, and Washingtons dominating the economy and politics.

• 1711: Virginia Governor Alexander Spotswood faced challenges in managing servants, resulting in a deal allowing them to drink if they behaved at a queen’s birthday celebration.

• Pre-Revolutionary War: 70% of Virginia's legislative leaders were from the “first families of Virginia” (FFVs) established before 1690.

• End of 17th century: White indentured servants were increasingly replaced by black slaves, who became the primary labor force in the South.

• Colonial South: Few cities and poor roads led to reliance on waterways for transportation and the development of family burial plots due to difficulties reaching church graveyards.

THE NEW ENGLAND SOCIETY

• Seventeenth-century New England: Settlers, including those arriving in the early 1600s, enjoyed an average life expectancy of about seventy years, thanks to the region's clean water and cool temperatures.

• Early 1600s: Settlers in New England typically migrated as families rather than individuals, contributing to stable population growth. Notably, Massachusetts Governor William Phips was one of twenty-seven children born to the same mother.

• By 1720: The proportion of female slaves in the Chesapeake region began to rise, allowing for the growth of families among enslaved people and contributing to a stable and distinctive slave culture.

• Seventeenth century: Southern colonies, such as South Carolina, had harsh conditions for slaves working on rice and indigo plantations. In contrast, slaves in the Chesapeake region had better conditions due to less physically demanding crops.

• 1662: Virginia enacted statutes formalizing slavery for blacks, creating sharp legal distinctions between slaves and servants.

• 1680s: Rising wages in England reduced the availability of indentured servants. During this decade, black slaves began to outnumber white servants among new arrivals to the plantation colonies.

• 1698: The Royal African Company lost its monopoly on the slave trade, leading to increased importation of slaves by enterprising Americans, particularly from Rhode Island.

• 1712: A slave revolt in New York City resulted in the deaths of twelve whites and the execution of twenty-one blacks.

• 1739: The Stono Rebellion, a revolt by more than fifty South Carolina blacks, aimed to escape to Spanish Florida but was thwarted by local militias.

• By 1750: Blacks accounted for nearly half of the population in Virginia, and in South Carolina, they outnumbered whites two to one.

• Seventeenth century: New England Puritan laws generally required women to give up their property rights upon marriage to maintain marital unity. However, widows had secure property rights and protections.

• Early 1700s: A Boston midwife delivered over three thousand babies, demonstrating the significant role of women in midwifery and childbirth.

• Early 1700s: Divorce was rare in New England, with separation permitted only for abandonment or adultery. Public punishment for adultery included wearing a capital letter “A,” as depicted in Nathaniel Hawthorne's 1850 novel, The Scarlet Letter.

LIFE IN NEW ENGLAND TOWNS

• Seventeenth century: New England society was tightly knit, with small villages and farms. Puritanism influenced a strong sense of community and moral concern.

• 1636: Massachusetts Puritans established Harvard College to train boys for the ministry, making it the oldest institution of higher learning in America.

• 1693: Virginia established its first college, William and Mary, eighty-six years after the founding of Jamestown.

• Early colonial New England: Towns with more than fifty families were required to provide elementary education, resulting in high literacy rates among adults.

• Congregational Church: Puritans ran their own churches with a democratic form of governance, which extended to political life. The town meeting, where adult males voted on local issues, was a model of democracy and was praised by Thomas Jefferson as “the best school of political liberty the world ever saw.”

• Nineteenth century: Massachusetts played a leading role in the crusade to abolish black slavery, reflecting the Puritan conscience that emphasized moral responsibility.

THE HALF-WAY COVENANT AND THE SALEM WITCH TRIALS

• Mid-seventeenth century: The Puritans in New England faced challenges with the dispersion of their population onto outlying farms, diminishing religious zeal, and declining church conversions.

• 1662: The Puritans introduced the Half-Way Covenant, allowing the unconverted children of church members to be baptized and gain partial church membership, but not full communion. This measure weakened the distinction between the "elect" and other members, diluting religious exclusivity.

• About the mid-seventeenth century: Puritan preachers began delivering "jeremiads," sermons inspired by the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah, criticizing parishioners for their waning piety and declining conversions.

• 1692: The Salem witch trials began, sparked by claims from adolescent girls in Salem, Massachusetts, of being bewitched by older women. This led to the legal execution of twenty individuals (nineteen hanged and one pressed to death) and the hanging of two dogs.

• 1693: The Salem witch trials ended when Governor William Phips, concerned by an accusation against his wife, prohibited further trials and pardoned those already convicted.

• 1711: A Massachusetts governor faced issues with servants and struck a deal allowing them to get drunk the next day if they would lay off the liquor long enough to attend a celebration.

• 1712: A slave revolt in New York City resulted in the deaths of twelve whites and the execution of twenty-one blacks.

• 1739: A rebellion by more than fifty South Carolina blacks along the Stono River aimed to march to Spanish Florida but was stopped by local militia.

• Twenty years after 1693: The Massachusetts legislature annulled the convictions from the Salem witch trials and made reparations to the heirs of the accused.

THE NEW ENGLAND WAY OF LIFE

• Seventeenth Century: The harsh, rocky soil of New England shaped its settlers' character, fostering industry and frugality.

• 1636: Massachusetts Puritans established Harvard College to train boys for the ministry.

• 1693: Virginians established their first college, William and Mary, eighty-six years after Jamestown.

• Connecticut: Became known as the "Nutmeg State" due to its reputation for sharp trading.

• Seventeenth Century: European immigrants were less attracted to New England due to its stony soil and harsh sermons compared to the more fertile southern colonies.

• Introduction of livestock: English settlers brought pigs, horses, sheep, and cattle, which led to deforestation and changes in local climates.

• Colonial Era: New Englanders exploited codfish resources off Newfoundland, contributing significantly to the economy.

• Sacred Cod: A replica of the "sacred cod" is displayed in the Massachusetts Statehouse in Boston as a reminder of the importance of fishing.

• New England Influence: New Englanders spread their town models across the country, influencing communities from Ohio to Oregon and Hawaii.

• Legacy: New England’s "Yankee ingenuity" and "New England conscience" became emblematic of American traits, impacting national character and inspiring reformers.

THE EARLY SETTLERS’ DAYS AND WAYS

• Colonial Daily Life: Most colonists were farmers, adhering to seasonal cycles—planting in spring, tending in summer, harvesting in fall, and preparing for winter.

• Colonial Chores: Women (both enslaved and free) wove, cooked, cleaned, and cared for children. Men cleared land, fenced, planted, cropped, cut firewood, and butchered livestock. Children assisted with tasks and received basic education.

• Economic Conditions: Compared to seventeenth-century Europeans, Americans lived in relative affluence. In the northern and middle colonies, an acre of virgin soil cost about one day's wage for a carpenter, roughly three times the wage of English counterparts.

• Migration Patterns: Most white migrants to early colonial America came from neither the aristocracy nor the impoverished classes. Indentured servants were an exception, coming from poorer backgrounds.

• Class Distinctions: Seventeenth-century colonial society exhibited a certain sameness, especially in the more egalitarian New England and middle colonies. Efforts to recreate European social structures were often thwarted by democratic forces.

• Bacon’s Rebellion (1676): In Virginia, Nathaniel Bacon led a rebellion against Governor William Berkeley due to frustration over the government's failure to protect settlers from Native American attacks and other grievances.

• Maryland Protestant Uprising (Late Seventeenth Century): The uprising involved Protestant settlers against the Catholic governor Lord Baltimore, leading to temporary Protestant control of the colony.

• Leisler’s Rebellion (1689-1691): In New York, Jacob Leisler, a merchant, led a rebellion against the colonial government of Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson. The rebellion ended with Leisler's execution and the restoration of the old order.

• Class Restrictions: Massachusetts’s 1651 law prohibited poorer individuals from wearing gold or silver lace. In eighteenth-century Virginia, a tailor was fined and jailed for arranging a horse race, deemed a sport for gentlemen only.

• Cultural Impact: Despite attempts to recreate European social hierarchies, the early American wilderness fostered a more egalitarian and democratic society, particularly among white colonists.

COLONIAL SOCIETY ON THE EVE OF REVOLUTION (1700-1775)

CHAPTER 5

CONSQUEST BY THE CRADLE

• 1700: The thirteen colonies had fewer than 300,000 people, with about 20,000 being black.

• 1775: Population increased to 2.5 million, with about 500,000 black individuals.

• Growth Factors:

  • Nearly 400,000 white immigrants contributed to the increase.

  • Black “forced immigrants” (enslaved Africans) contributed nearly as many.

  • Natural fertility led to a doubling of the population every 25 years.

• Demographics:

  • Average age in 1775 was about sixteen.

  • Dr. Samuel Johnson criticized the rapid population growth, comparing it to rattlesnakes.

• Political Impact:

  • 1700: There were twenty English subjects for each American colonist.

  • 1775: Ratio fell to three English subjects for each American colonist, affecting the balance of power.

• Settlement:

  • Most of the population was east of the Alleghenies.

  • By 1775, pioneers had moved into Tennessee and Kentucky.

• Most Populous Colonies (1775):

  • Virginia

  • Massachusetts

  • Pennsylvania

  • North Carolina

  • Maryland

• Major Cities (1775):

  • Philadelphia: Approximately 34,000 residents

  • New York

  • Boston

  • Charleston

• Rural Population: About 90% of people lived in rural areas.

A MINGLING OF THE RACES

• 1700: Fewer than 300,000 people in the American colonies, including about 20,000 black individuals.

• 1775: Population of 2.5 million in the colonies, with around 500,000 black individuals.

• Germans:

  • 1775: About 150,000 Germans, or 6% of the population, primarily in Pennsylvania.

  • Known as Pennsylvania Dutch (misnomer from "Deutsch").

• Scots-Irish:

  • 1775: Approximately 175,000, or 7% of the population.

  • Settled in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley, and western Carolinas.

  • 1764: Paxton Boys’ Rebellion: A group of Scots-Irish frontiersmen from Pennsylvania marched on Philadelphia, protesting the Quaker government's lenient policies toward Native Americans and demanding more protection from Indian attacks.

  • 1760s: Regulator Movement: An uprising in North Carolina by Scots-Irish settlers against corrupt colonial officials and unfair taxation. It aimed to end the control of the eastern elite over the western frontier regions.

  • Notable Figure: Andrew Jackson (future U.S. President), who was involved in the Regulator Movement.

• Other European Groups:

  • 1775: About 5% of the population including French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swiss, Scots Highlanders.

• Africans:

  • 1775: Nearly 20% of the population, mainly in the South.

• Ethnic Composition:

  • New England: Mostly English with less diversity.

  • Middle Colonies: Highly diverse, especially Pennsylvania.

  • 1775: About half the population outside New England was non-English.

• Declaration of Independence:

  • 1776: Of fifty-six signers, eighteen were non-English and eight were not born in the colonies.

• Michel-Guillaume de Crèvecoeur:

  • 1770s: Described America as a “strange mixture of blood.”

• African-American and Native American Communities:

  • African Americans: Diverse cultural origins due to the slave trade.

  • Native Americans: Blending of tribal identities in places like Detroit.

THE STRUCTURE OF COLONIAL SOCIETY

Dates:

• 1690s and early 1700s: Armed conflicts that enriched merchant elites.

• 1730s: Philadelphia and New York built almshouses.

• 1750: Boston had a large number of homeless poor supported by public charity.

• 1760: South Carolina attempted to restrict or halt the importation of slaves.

People:

• Thomas Jefferson: Mentioned in relation to his condemnation of British slave trade policies in an early draft of the Declaration of Independence.

Names and Concepts:

• Merchant Princes: Wealthy merchants who gained significant fortunes from military supply contracts.

• "Jayle Birds": Convicts sent from England to the American colonies.

• South Carolina Legislature (1760): Attempted to restrict slave importation.

CLERICS, PHYSICIANS, AND JURISTS

• 1721: Introduction of a crude form of smallpox inoculation.

• 1765: Establishment of the first medical school in America.

• 1730s: An epidemic of diphtheria took the lives of thousands.

• George Washington: Mentioned as being afflicted with smallpox and heavily pockmarked.

• John Adams: Future president, noted as a young law student whose future father-in-law disapproved of him as a suitor.

• Christian Ministry: Most honored profession, though its influence had waned by 1775.

• Physicians: Poorly trained, with the first medical school established in 1765. Common practices included bleeding and using powdered dried toad for smallpox.

• Barbers: Often summoned to treat ailments when physicians were unavailable.

• Epidemics: Smallpox and diphtheria were major health concerns.

• Law Profession: Initially not favorably regardedwith lawyers often seen as troublemakers or windbags. An early Connecticut law classed them with drunkards and brothel keepers.

WORKADAY AMERICA

• 1759: New York was exporting eighty thousand barrels of flour a year.

• 1730s: An epidemic of diphtheria took the lives of thousands.

• 1770: About four hundred vessels of assorted sizes were built annually, with one-third of the British merchant marine being American-built.

• George Washington: Mentioned as being afflicted with smallpox.

• John Adams: Future president, noted as a young law student whose future father-in-law disapproved of him as a suitor.

• Agriculture: Leading industry, involving about 90 percent of the people. Tobacco was a staple crop in Maryland and Virginia, with wheat cultivation spreading through the Chesapeake.

• Fishing and Whaling: Major industries in New England, including the export of dried cod.

• Triangular Trade: Described as a profitable but small part of total colonial commerce, involving the exchange of rum, African slaves, and molasses.

• Manufacturing: Secondary importance with small enterprises like distilling "kill devil" rum, making beaver hats, and iron forges.

• Lumbering: Important manufacturing activity with shipbuilding consuming large quantities of timber and producing about one-third of the British merchant marine.

• Colonial Naval Stores: Highly valued items like tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine, with Britain offering bounties to stimulate production. Reserved timber was marked with the king’s broad arrow, and cutting it down resulted in fines.

• 1733: The Molasses Act was passed, aiming to restrict American trade with the French West Indies, leading to smuggling and bribery by American merchants.

HORSEPOWER AND SAILPOWER

• 1720: Benjamin Franklin took nine days to travel from Boston to Philadelphia by sailing sloop, rowboat, and foot.

• 1776: News of the Declaration of Independence reached Charleston from Philadelphia twenty-nine days after the Fourth of July.

• 1700s: Roads connecting major cities were established, but they were poorly constructed and often deficient.

• Roads were characterized by dust in the summer and mud in the winter.

• Stagecoach travelers faced dangers such as tree-strewn roads, rickety bridges, carriage overturns, and runaway horses.

• Traveling from Philadelphia to New York was so perilous that a traveler might make a will and pray with their family before departing.

DOMINANT DENOMINATIONS

• 1775: The two prominent “established,” or tax-supported, churches were the Anglican and the Congregational churches.

• 1693: The College of William and Mary was founded to train a better class of Anglican clergy.

• Early Revolution Era: Ministers increasingly addressed political issues, with sedition flowing from pulpits.

• Before the Revolution: Serious discussion about creating an American bishopric for the Anglican Church was opposed by many non-Anglicans.

• The Church of England (Anglican) was established in Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and part of New York.

• The Congregational Church was established in all New England colonies except Rhode Island.

• Seventeenth Century: The Anglican Church was criticized for its less fervent and more worldly approach compared to Puritanical New England.

• Rhode Island: Known for its independent stance and did not have an established Congregational Church.

• Pre-Revolutionary Period: Anglican clergy often supported the British king, while Presbyterian and Congregational ministers were more aligned with revolutionary sentiments.

• Roman Catholics: Generally discriminated against, with fewer Catholics in America leading to less severe and less strictly enforced anti-papist laws.

THE GREAT AWAKENING

• Early 18th Century: Religion in colonial America was less fervent compared to the early colonial period, with Puritan churches facing challenges from elaborate doctrines and liberal membership requirements.

• Arminianism: Challenged Calvinist predestination by promoting the idea that individual free will, not divine decree, determined a person’s eternal fate. Followers of Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius espoused this view.

• 1730s and 1740s: The Great Awakening was a major religious revival that spread through the colonies.

• Jonathan Edwards: A key figure in the Great Awakening, known for his sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" and his vivid descriptions of hell. His preaching emphasized dependence on God’s grace over salvation through good works.

• 1734: Edwards’s preaching style ignited a sympathetic reaction among his parishioners.

• 1738: George Whitefield began his evangelical preaching in America, revolutionizing the spiritual life of the colonies with his emotional and oratory skills. His style included dramatic and compelling sermons that moved many, including Benjamin Franklin.

• Old Lights: Orthodox clergymen who were skeptical of the emotionalism and theatrical antics of the revivalists.

• New Lights: Ministers who supported the Great Awakening for revitalizing American religion and embracing emotional expressions of faith.

• Effects of the Great Awakening:

  • Denominational Schisms: The revival led to divisions within Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches, increasing the numbers and competitiveness of American churches.

  • Founding of New Institutions: New light centers of higher learning were established, including Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth.

  • Increased Missionary Work: There was a boost in missionary efforts among Native Americans and black slaves.

  • American Identity: The Great Awakening fostered a sense of unity and a common American identity by breaking down sectional and denominational boundaries.

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

• Puritan New England: Prioritized education for religious reasons, aiming to ensure Bible reading by individuals. The focus was on making good Christians rather than good citizens.

• Congregational Church: Dominant in New England, established a tradition of education to support its religious goals.

• Education Verse (late 18th century): Highlighted the perceived benefits of education with the rhyme: “He who ne’er learns his A.B.C. / Forever will a blockhead be. / But he who learns his letters fair / Shall have a coach to take the air.”

• Harvard College: Founded in 1636; at one time admitted students as young as eleven. Emphasized classical languages and theology, with severe discipline practices.

• Benjamin Franklin: Founded the University of Pennsylvania in 1740, the first American college that was not denominationally controlled.

• Nine Colonial Colleges: Established during the colonial era included:

  • Harvard College (1636) in New England

  • William and Mary (1693) in Virginia

  • Yale College (1701) in New Haven

  • Princeton University (1746) in New Jersey

  • Columbia College (1754) in New York

  • University of Pennsylvania (1740) in Philadelphia, founded by Benjamin Franklin

• Severe Discipline: Included corporal punishment with a birch switch and strict enforcement of rules by indentured-servant teachers, who faced penalties for failures.

A PROVINCINAL CULTURE

• John Trumbull (1756–1843): A Connecticut painter who was discouraged by his father’s remark “Connecticut is not Athens.” He traveled to London to pursue his artistic ambitions.

• Charles Willson Peale (1741–1827): Known for his portraits of George Washington. He also ran a museum, stuffed birds, and practiced dentistry.

• Benjamin West (1738–1820): A gifted painter who, like Trumbull, went to England to complete his training. He was a close friend of George III and was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral in London.

• John Singleton Copley (1738–1815): A precocious painter who also went to England for his training. He was regarded as a Loyalist during the Revolutionary War.

• Phillis Wheatley (c. 1753–1784): A slave girl brought to Boston at age eight, who became a notable poet despite never being formally educated. She published a book of verse in England at age twenty and was influenced by Alexander Pope.

• Benjamin Franklin: Known as “the first civilized American.” His notable works include Poor Richard’s Almanack (1732–1758), which contained pithy sayings emphasizing virtues such as thrift and common sense. His autobiography is also considered a classic.

• Poor Richard’s Almanack (1732–1758): Edited by Benjamin Franklin, it was known for its pithy sayings emphasizing homespun virtues like thrift, industry, morality, and common sense.

• Notable Sayings:

  • “What maintains one vice would bring up two children.”

  • “Plough deep while sluggards sleep.”

  • “Honesty is the best policy.”

  • “Fish and visitors stink in three days.”

• Readership: It was more widely read in America than anything except the Bible.

• Franklin’s Inventions: Included bifocal spectacles, the Franklin stove, and the lightning rod. His kite-flying experiment demonstrated that lightning is a form of electricity.

• Colonial Architecture: Imported from Europe and modified for the New World. The Georgian style, introduced around 1720, is exemplified by Williamsburg, Virginia.

• Colonial Literature: Generally undistinguished, with notable exceptions like Phillis Wheatley. Franklin's Poor Richard’s Almanack was highly influential and widely read in America and Europe.

PIONEER PRESSES

• Book Access and Libraries:

  • 1734–1735: John Peter Zenger's trial highlighted issues related to press freedom and book access.

  • Byrd Family: The Byrd family of Virginia owned about four thousand volumes, one of the largest collections in the colonies.

  • Benjamin Franklin: Established the first privately supported circulating library in Philadelphia. By 1776, there were about fifty public libraries supported by subscriptions.

• Printing and Newspapers:

  • Colonial Newspapers: By the eve of the Revolution, there were about forty newspapers, mostly weeklies on large sheets. Columns were signed with pseudonyms like Cicero, Philosophicus, and Pro Bono Publico.

  • Printing Technology: Hand-operated presses produced pamphlets, leaflets, and journals.

  • Jhn Peter Zenger:

    • Occupation: Printer and publisher of the New York Weekly Journal.

    • Charges: Accused of seditious libel for publishing criticisms of Governor William Cosby and his administration.

  • Andrew Hamilton:

    • Role: Defended Zenger; previously an indentured servant who had become a distinguished lawyer.

    • Defense Argument: Hamilton argued that Zenger’s publication was not libelous because it was true. He claimed that freedom of the press was crucial for exposing and opposing arbitrary power.

  • Royal Chief Justice:

    • Instruction: Directed the jury to ignore the truth of Zenger’s statements and focus solely on whether Zenger had published the material.

  • Jury Verdict:

    • Outcome: The jury, swayed by Hamilton's arguments, returned a verdict of not guilty, defying the instructions of the chief justice.

    • Public Reaction: The verdict was met with cheers from spectators and was celebrated as a victory for press freedom.

  • Significance:

    • Precedent: The case established a precedent for freedom of the press in America. Although full freedom of the press was not achieved immediately, the case set the stage for future legal principles.

    • Impact: It underscored the importance of open discussion and criticism of public officials, contributing to the development of democratic principles in colonial America.

THE GREAT NAME OF POLITICS

• 1775: The thirteen colonies had different governmental structures:

  • Royal Colonies: Eight colonies were governed by royal governors appointed by the king.

  • Proprietary Colonies: Three colonies (Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware) were governed by proprietors who chose the governors.

  • Self-Governing Colonies: Two colonies (Connecticut and Rhode Island) elected their own governors under self-governing charters.

• Colonial Legislatures: Practically every colony utilized a two-house legislative system:

  • Upper House (Council): Appointed by the crown in royal colonies, by the proprietor in proprietary colonies, and elected by voters in self-governing colonies.

  • Lower House: Elected by property-owning voters, responsible for deciding taxes and expenses for colonial government.

• Lord Cornbury: Appointed governor of New York and New Jersey in 1702, known for his corruption, incompetence, and alleged cross-dressing. His mismanagement exemplified the problems with some royal appointments.

• Colonial Assemblies: Asserting authority over governors, assemblies sometimes withheld governors' salaries. This practice, including instances like a North Carolina governor’s salary being in arrears for eleven years, contributed to the rising tensions and spirit of revolt.

• Local Government Variations:

  • South: County government was prevalent.

  • New England: Town-meeting government was practiced, promoting direct democracy.

  • Middle Colonies: A mix of county and town government was used.

COLONIAL FOLKWAYS

• 1775:

  • Eight colonies had royal governors appointed by the king.

  • Three colonies (Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware) were governed by proprietors who chose the governors.

  • Two colonies (Connecticut and Rhode Island) elected their own governors under self-governing charters.

• Colonial Legislatures:

  • Upper House (Council) appointed by the crown in royal colonies, by the proprietor in proprietary colonies, and elected by voters in self-governing colonies.

  • Lower House elected by property-owning voters, responsible for deciding taxes and expenses for colonial government.

• Lord Cornbury (1702): Appointed governor of New York and New Jersey; known for corruption, incompetence, and alleged cross-dressing.

• Colonial assemblies sometimes withheld governors' salaries to assert authority; a governor in North Carolina had his salary in arrears for eleven years.

• South: County government was prevalent.

  • New England: Town-meeting government.

  • Middle Colonies: Used a mix of county and town government.

• Daily Life and Culture:

  • Homes lacked plumbing; waste disposal was primitive. Lighting came from candles and whale-oil lamps.

  • Amusements included militia musters, house-raisings, quilting bees, and apple parings. Popular activities varied: winter sports in the North, card playing, horse racing, cockfighting, and dancing in the South. George Washington was noted for his riding and dancing.

  • Christmas was frowned upon in New England as “Popery”; Thanksgiving became a popular festival.

• Mid-18th Century:

  • Colonies were English-speaking and Protestant, with ethnic and religious toleration.

  • Greater social mobility compared to Europe.

  • Colonies had varying degrees of self-government, shared common origins, and beliefs in self-rule, setting the stage for unity and independence.