(368) How IMPERIAL States EXPANDED, 1750-1900 [AP World History Review—Unit 6 Topic 2]

Overview of Second Wave of Imperialism

Time Period: 1750 to 1900The Second Wave of Imperialism is characterized by a notable shift in European powers' focus from the Americas to Africa and Asia. This period saw the decline of traditional imperial powers such as Spain and Portugal, while new imperial players like Germany, Italy, the United States, and Japan emerged as significant forces in global expansion.

Developments in Imperialism

Geographical Focus

• First Wave of Imperialism: Primarily concentrated on the Americas and certain parts of Asia, where European nations established colonies and trade routes.

• Second Wave of Imperialism: A substantial emphasis on Africa and Asia. European powers scrambled to claim territories, often overlooking indigenous rights and governance.

Key Players

• The decline of Spain and Portugal due to economic difficulties and loss of colonies.

• Continued relevance of long-standing imperial powers such as Britain, France, and the Dutch who retained significant overseas possessions.

• The emergence of new players in the imperial arena:

  • Germany: Seized overseas colonies in Africa and the Pacific, driven by industrial ambitions and nationalistic fervor.

  • Italy: Sought to establish its influence in Africa, exemplified by its conquest of Eritrea and Somalia.

  • Belgium, the United States, and Japan: Each expanded through various means, such as military conquest, diplomacy, and industrial competition.

Major Methods of Imperial Expansion

1. State Takeovers of Private Colonies

   • Example: The Belgian Congo, initially a private venture of King Leopold II, reflects the complexities of imperialism. Despite outward claims of humanitarianism, exploitation for resources such as rubber was rampant. Eventually, the Belgian government assumed control in 1908 following international outrage over the atrocities committed under Leopold’s regime.

   • Comparison: Similar methods were observed in British control of India, which transitioned from being governed by the British East India Company to direct British rule after the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857.

2. Diplomacy and Warfare

   • Diplomacy

     • A landmark event during this time was the Berlin Conference (1884-1885), where European powers convened to establish protocols for the partitioning of Africa. Notably, there was no African representation, leading to arbitrary borders that often disregarded ethnic and cultural divisions. This set the groundwork for future conflicts within the continent.

   • Warfare

     • A striking example is the French invasion of Algeria, sparked by tensions over debt and an insult to a French diplomat. This military campaign led to significant territorial conquest despite fierce Algerian resistance, signifying the willingness of European powers to use force to achieve imperial objectives.

3. Establishment of Settler Colonies

   • Definition: Settler colonies are defined as territories where imperial powers relocated their citizens to establish new societies and governance structures.

   • British Examples: Prominent settler colonies included Australia and New Zealand. The introduction of European diseases had catastrophic effects on indigenous populations such as the Aborigines and Māori, leading to drastic declines and cultural assimilation under colonial rule.

4. Conquering Neighboring Territories

   • United States: The concept of Manifest Destiny fueled the U.S. territorial expansion through wars (like the Mexican-American War) and purchases (such as the Louisiana Purchase), which displaced indigenous peoples to reservations, fundamentally altering their way of life and membership in their own ancestral lands.

   • Russia: Post-Crimean War, the emergence of Pan-Slavism aimed to unify Slavic peoples, resulting in military campaigns that expanded Russian territory into Central Asia and parts of the Far East, further extending its influence in the region.

   • Japan: Rapid industrialization during the Meiji Restoration propelled Japan onto the world stage as a formidable imperial power. Their military modernization facilitated territorial expansions into Korea, Manchuria, and parts of China, exemplifying their newfound global ambitions.

Conclusion

Understanding the methods of imperial expansion during the Second Wave of Imperialism is crucial for comprehending the geopolitical dynamics of the era. These developments fostered complex relationships and conflicts that influenced global interactions and power structures well beyond the 19th century, laying the groundwork for future international relations and colonial legacies.