Flashcards for PSY 4331.001 Exam 2

Lecture 07 – The “Big Five” of Personality

Q: What is the Dispositional Trait Approach?
A: Enduring characteristics or tendencies that influence how a person typically thinks, feels, or behaves. Traits influence behavior in relevant situations and emphasize the present. Traits can be expressed in multiple ways depending on context, roles, etc. Dispositional traits are not just descriptive but explanatory — they are the causes of behaviors.

Q: What are the Big Five personality traits?
A: Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Openness. These traits are orthogonal (completely separate from each other).

Q: What is Extraversion and its outcomes?
A: Sociable, outgoing, energetic, and reward-sensitive. Outcomes: Popularity, physical attractiveness, and substance abuse.

Q: What are the two components of Extraversion?
A: Enthusiasm (gregariousness, positive emotions, warmth, excitement-seeking) and Assertiveness (excitement-seeking, activity, assertiveness).

Q: What is Neuroticism and its outcomes?
A: Tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety, sadness, or mood swings. Stronger in ambiguous situations and linked with higher complaints and threat sensitivity. Outcomes: Poor personal relationships, lower job satisfaction, higher rates of psychopathology.

Q: What is Conscientiousness and its outcomes?
A: Being responsible, organized, detail-oriented, and reliable. Outcomes: Academic success, lower absenteeism, greater longevity.

Q: What is Agreeableness and its outcomes?
A: Being cooperative, warm, and friendly. Outcomes: Less likely to be bullied, faster recovery from illness, happier romantic relationships, and higher self-regulation.

Q: What is Openness and its outcomes?
A: Creative, imaginative, open to new experiences. Outcomes: Higher creativity, appreciation for art, and enhanced cognitive flexibility.

Lecture 08 – Psychoanalytic Theory

Q: What are Freud’s three parts of personality?
A: Id (pleasure-driven, unconscious), Ego (reality-driven, partially conscious), and Superego (morality-driven, preconscious).

Q: What are Freud’s two main drives?
A: Life Instinct (Eros, associated with creativity, procreation, growth) and Death Instinct (Thanatos, associated with aggression, destruction).

Q: What is the function of the Ego in Freud's theory?
A: The Ego negotiates reality and attempts to satisfy the Id's demands without negative consequences. It acts as the mediator between the Id and Superego.

Q: Name 5 defense mechanisms and their descriptions.
A:

1. Denial: Completely pushing out uncomfortable thoughts or feelings.

2. Repression: Removing conscious awareness of unpleasant thoughts.

3. Projection: Attributing one's undesirable impulses or thoughts to others.

4. Sublimation: Redirecting energy into socially acceptable activities.

5. Reaction Formation: Acting in the exact opposite way of an unwanted impulse.

Q: What is the Oral Stage and its outcomes?
A: Conflict centers around weaning/feeding. Fixation leads to over-dependence (oral passive) or cynicism/aggression (oral aggressive). Successful resolution promotes trust and independence.

Q: What is the Anal Stage and its outcomes?
A: Conflict involves toilet training. Fixation can lead to excessive neatness (anal retentive) or messiness (anal expulsive). Successful resolution promotes self-control.

Q: What is the Phallic Stage and its outcomes?
A: Conflict revolves around the Oedipus/Electra complex. Successful resolution fosters the development of the superego, gender identity, and healthy relationships. Unsuccessful resolution may cause issues with authority and gender identity.

Q: What is the Latency Period and its outcomes?
A: A stage where sexual energy is sublimated into non-sexual activities like academics, hobbies, or social skills. Focus is on social and cognitive development.

Q: What is the Genital Stage and its outcomes?
A: The challenge involves integrating past conflicts into mature adulthood. Successful resolution leads to rational behavior, stable relationships, and minimal reliance on defense mechanisms.

Lecture 09 – Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory

Q: What is Classical Conditioning?
A: Learning through associations between stimuli (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs). An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally produces an unconditioned response (UCR). By pairing a neutral stimulus (which becomes the conditioned stimulus) with the UCS, a conditioned response (CR) is learned.

Q: What are key terms in Classical Conditioning?
A:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural response to the UCS.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, now elicits a learned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Q: What is Operant Conditioning?
A: Learning through consequences that shape behavior. Behavior is strengthened or weakened based on reinforcement or punishment.

Q: What are the types of reinforcement and punishment?
A:

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., praise for completing homework).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., turning off a loud alarm when you wake up).

• Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus to reduce behavior (e.g., a speeding ticket).

• Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to reduce behavior (e.g., taking away video game privileges).

Q: What is the Bobo Doll Experiment and its findings?
A: Conducted by Albert Bandura, this experiment showed children observing adults aggressively interacting with a Bobo doll. Children who saw aggressive models, especially those rewarded for aggression, were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors. This illustrated vicarious learning — learning through observing others.

Q: What is Vicarious Learning?
A: Learning that occurs by observing the consequences others experience, not through direct experience. Observing rewards or punishments for others can shape behavior.

Q: What is Reciprocal Determinism?
A: A concept by Bandura where behavior, environment, and personal cognition influence each other continuously. This dynamic interplay explains how individuals’ actions both shape and are shaped by their surroundings.

Q: What are the core concepts of Social Learning Theory?
A:

1. Observational Learning: Learning behaviors by watching others.

2. Imitation: Directly copying another’s behavior.

3. Modeling: Learning by observing and internalizing behavior, attitudes, and emotional reactions.

Q: What role does Self-Efficacy play in Social Learning Theory?
A: Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to achieve specific goals. High self-efficacy improves motivation, resilience, and achievement.

Q: How does Behaviorism view personality development?
A: Personality is seen as the sum of all learned behaviors shaped through reinforcement and punishment. Personality patterns emerge based on consistent behavioral responses to environmental stimuli.

Q: How did B.F. Skinner contribute to Behaviorism?
A: Skinner developed the concept of operant conditioning and emphasized the importance of reinforcement schedules to shape and maintain behaviors.

Q: What are Skinner’s Reinforcement Schedules?
A:

• Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

• Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after a random number of responses (most effective).

• Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a set period of time.

• Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement at random time intervals.

Q: What is the key difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning?
A: Classical conditioning involves involuntary behaviors triggered by stimuli, while operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors shaped by consequences.

Lecture 10 – Humanistic/Phenomenological Theory

Q: What is Humanistic Psychology?
A: A psychological perspective that emphasizes individual potential, self-growth, and personal fulfillment. Humanistic psychology focuses on personal experience, free will, and the innate drive toward self-actualization.

Q: What are the key principles of Humanistic Psychology?
A:

1. Holism: Humans are greater than the sum of their parts.

2. Self-Awareness: Humans are conscious beings aware of their existence.

3. Free Will and Responsibility: Humans have choice and are responsible for those choices.

4. Purpose and Meaning: Humans are intentional and seek value, creativity, and purpose in life.

Q: What is Carl Rogers' Person-Centered Theory?
A: Rogers believed that individuals strive for growth and fulfillment. His theory emphasizes the importance of self-concept, congruence, and unconditional positive regard.

Q: What is Self-Actualization?
A: The inherent tendency of the individual to develop their potential and strive for growth, creativity, and personal fulfillment. Achieving self-actualization leads to becoming a fully functioning person.

Q: What is Congruence in Rogers' Theory?
A: Congruence occurs when an individual's self-concept aligns with their experiences. Greater congruence promotes emotional well-being. Incongruence occurs when there’s a mismatch, leading to anxiety and defensiveness.

Q: What is Unconditional Positive Regard?
A: Providing complete acceptance and support regardless of an individual’s actions or qualities. It is essential for fostering self-acceptance and psychological growth.

Q: What is Client-Centered Therapy?
A: A therapeutic approach where the therapist offers empathy, active listening, and unconditional positive regard to help the client achieve self-understanding and growth. Clients are seen as their own best authority.

Q: What are Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
A: A motivational theory in psychology involving five levels:

1. Physiological Needs: Food, water, shelter.

2. Safety Needs: Security, stability, protection.

3. Love/Belonging Needs: Relationships, family, social connection.

4. Esteem Needs: Self-respect, achievement, recognition.

5. Self-Actualization Needs: Realizing one’s full potential through personal growth, creativity, and fulfillment.

Lecture 11 – Personality and the Lifespan

Q: What is Personality Stability?
A: Refers to the consistency of personality traits over time. Stability can manifest through Rank-Order Consistency (relative position among peers) or Mean-Level Stability (overall consistency in traits across populations).

Q: What is Rank-Order Consistency?
A: The maintenance of one’s relative position within a group over time.

Q: What is Mean-Level Stability?
A: Stability of the average level of a trait over time, usually seen across larger groups rather than individuals.

Q: What is Heterotypic Continuity?
A: Personality traits that manifest differently at different life stages while maintaining underlying consistency. For example, childhood impulsivity may develop into adult risk-taking.

Q: What life events influence personality change?
A:

• Travel: Increases openness, social skills, and creativity.

• Marriage/Partnerships: Promotes stability and growth in conscientiousness and agreeableness.

• Trauma or Major Upheaval: Often leads to lower agreeableness, reduced conscientiousness, and increased neuroticism.

Lecture 12 – The Person vs. The Situation Debate

Q: What is the Person-Situation Debate?
A: The Person-Situation Debate revolves around whether personality traits or situational factors are more influential in determining behavior. This debate emerged from research suggesting that behavior varies significantly depending on the environment, challenging the stability of personality traits.

Q: What was Walter Mischel’s stance in the Person-Situation Debate?
A: In his 1968 book Personality and Assessment, Mischel argued that personality traits are not strong predictors of behavior. He claimed that behavior is highly variable and largely influenced by situational factors. Mischel’s critique sparked major controversy in personality psychology.

Q: What evidence did Mischel use to support his argument?
A: Mischel highlighted studies showing weak correlations (r = 0.30–0.40) between personality traits and behavior. He concluded that the situation often exerts a stronger influence than stable personality traits.

Q: How did Personality Psychologists respond to Mischel’s critique?
A: Personality psychologists refuted Mischel’s claims by:

• Arguing that a 0.30 correlation is meaningful and better than chance.

• Emphasizing that personality psychology aims to predict patterns of behavior across situations rather than specific behaviors in isolated events.

• Pointing out that individuals can vary in consistency, with some displaying more stable traits than others.

Q: What is Interactionism in Personality Psychology?
A: Interactionism proposes that behavior is shaped by the dynamic interplay between personality traits and situational factors. Neither factor alone fully explains behavior. Instead, they combine to predict outcomes.

Q: What are the three mechanisms of Interactionism?
A:

1. Selection: Individuals choose situations based on their personality traits (e.g., extroverts seek social events).

2. Manipulation: Individuals influence and shape their environment to align with their personality traits.

3. Evocation: Certain personality traits naturally elicit specific responses from others (e.g., dominant individuals may provoke stronger reactions).

Q: What are strong vs. weak situations in the context of personality?
A:

• Strong Situations: Situations with clear behavioral expectations that minimize personality differences (e.g., military training, funerals).

• Weak Situations: Situations with ambiguous social rules, allowing personality traits to influence behavior more strongly (e.g., social gatherings).

Q: How did the debate affect modern psychology?
A: The Person-Situation Debate led to a consensus that personality traits and situational factors interact. This paved the way for modern Interactionism, emphasizing that consistent behavior patterns emerge over time rather than in isolated situations.

Q: What is the Role of Aggregation in Personality Research?
A: Aggregation refers to measuring personality traits across multiple situations or observations. By averaging behaviors, stable patterns emerge, supporting the idea that personality traits are consistent despite situational variability.

Q: What role does the Social-Cognitive Theory play in the Person-Situation Debate?
A: Albert Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory highlights that personality develops through reciprocal interactions between cognitive processes, environment, and behavior. This theory emphasizes observational learning, self-efficacy, and personal agency as key drivers of personality stability and change.