Was the ‘new woman’ a myth or reality in the Weimar Republic?

Changes in the Position of Women:

• The idea of the ‘new woman’ symbolised the way women’s lives had changed since the end of the war.

• She was portrayed as being free, independent, sexually liberated and increasingly visible in public life.

• The Weimar Constitution had given women equality with men in voting rights and access to education.

• It had also given women equal opportunities in civil service appointments and the right to equal pay.

• This coincided with a major change in the gender balance in the population as a result of the war → over 2 million young men had been killed in the war, so there were fewer opportunities for young women to follow the conventional path of marriage and child-rearing to economic security.

• The war also brought many women into paid employment to replace fighting men.

• It is therefore unsurprising that many German women had different expectations and opportunities than previous generations.

The Myth of the ‘New Woman’: The role of Tradition:

● We shouldn’t exaggerate the extent of change → not even all women approved the changes.

● The Civil Code of 1896 set out civil rights in Germany.

● On the position of women it laid down that husbands had the right to decide on all matters concerning family life. They could decide if a wife worked or not. This idea was supported by a great number of women.

● Civil Code of 1896: since the unification of Germany in 1871 there had been a need to bring each of the separate laws of the German states into a uniform national framework. This was the Civil Code of 1896, which concerned all aspects of personal civil rights and responsibilities.

● Although the constitution gave women new legal and civil rights, the traditional Civil Code of 1896 remained in force. This code laid down that in a marriage the husband had the right to decide on all matters in family life, including whether his wife should undertake paid employment.

● The most popular women’s group in the 1920s was the League of German Women (BDF), which had 900,000 members, and promoted traditional family values and maternal responsibilities.

● This view was echoed by more conservative political parties and by churches, alarmed by the changes they considered a threat to the family.

● In many ways, therefore, the concept of the ‘new woman’ was more of a cultivated myth than a social reality for the majority of German women.

Women in Politics:

1919 41

1920 37

1924 (May) 27

1924 (December) 33

1928 33

1930 42

( Table showing the number of female deputies in the Reichstag)

● Achievement of women’s suffrage in 1919 didn’t usher in new era of female equality, but it did bring debate on women’s rights to the heart of political debate.

● Weimar Republic witnessed continuing struggle between those who wanted Germany to become more modern, free and equal society and those who fought to retain traditional values.

● Clash over women’s rights = front line in this struggle, with so-called ‘new women’ increasingly used as scapegoats for Germany’s political and economic ills.

Clara Zetkin (1857-1933)

● KPD member of the Reichstag 1920-1933.

● Had been active in the SPD before 1915 and was leading campaigner for women’s rights.

● She organised the first ever International Women’s Day in 1911.

● Close friend of Rosa Luxemburg and blamed capitalism for reducing women to the status of breeders and homebuilders: believed women would only be truly liberated by a socialist revolution.

Marie Juchacz (1879-1956):

● Long-standing member of the SPD and elected to National Assembly in 1919.

● First woman to make a speech in any legislative body in Germany and served as Reichstag deputy for the SPD until 1933.

● Came from a poor, rural background and left school at 14 to earn money for her family.

● She had been introduced to politics by her older brother, Otto Gohlke, and joined SPD in 1908, becoming one of the first female party members.

Marianne Weber (1870-1954):

● Intellectual, academic and wife of Max Weber, leading sociologist.

● Wrote several books on feminist issues and active in German women’s suffrage movement before 1914.

● Joined the DDP in 1919 and was the first woman elected to the state legislature in Baden.

● Wrote that ‘it is our responsibility to infuse all life with our special mix of feminine and humane influence’.

Paula Muller-Otfried (1865-1964):

● Devout Protestant and co-founder of German Protestant Women’s League.

● Active in church and social work.

● Opposed to women’s suffrage, warning voting rights would not improve women’s rights.

● Member of the DNVP, became a Reichstag deputy in 1920 and continued until 1932.

Women in Employment:

● The constitution gave women greater equality in employment rights.

● By 1925, 36% of German workforce were women.

● By 1933, there were 100,000 women teachers and 3000 women doctors.

● The growth of mass-production techniques created opportunities for female unskilled workers.

● BUT:

● The ‘demobilisation laws’ after the war required women to leave their jobs so that ex-soldiers could find employment.

● In many occupations, women were required to give up their employment when they married.

● Women were paid much less than men doing equivalent work.

● Married women who continued to have paid jobs were attacked as ‘double earners’ and blamed for male unemployment. There were campaigns in the press and by conservative parties for dismissal of married women workers.

Sexual Freedom:

● Birth control became more widely available and the birth rate declined.

● Divorce rates increased

● Rise in the number of abortions; by 1930, an estimated 1 million abortions a year.

● BUT:

● Abortion was a criminal offence and often performed by unqualified people. In 1930, there were an estimated 10-12,000 deaths a year from abortions.

● Decline in birth attached by the conservative press and politicians as a ‘birth strike’ threatening the health of the nation and continued existence of the race.

● Catholic and Protestant churches vigorously opposed to birth control, divorce and abortion. Many German women were committed members of church congregations.

Politics and Public Life:

● Women gained equal voting rights and the right to be Reichstag deputies in the Weimar Constitution.

● In 1919, 41 women were elected to the Reichstag; the number of women fell in subsequent elections but the German Reichstag had a higher proportion of female deputies than the British House of Commons.

● Women were also very active in local government at state and city level.

● BUT:

● There were no female representatives in the Reichsrat.

● No woman became a cabinet member during the Weimar Republic.

● No political party had a female leader in the Weimar years.

● Only the communists (KPD) made gender equality a key element in its programme but it was the least appealing party to the new female electorate.

● The party that gained the most votes from female suffrage was the Catholic Centre Party. In Protestant areas, the conservative DNVP and DVP appealed most to women voters. None of these parties gave any support to feminist issues.

Conclusion:

● Women in Weimar Germany were being presented with two conflicting counter-images: the modern female worker vs. the idealised wife and mother.