MUST KNOW TERMS (1648-1815)

Here are the definitions for all the terms, people, and events you provided, formatted in the plain text structure without bullet points, using AP European History-aligned examples. Each entry is separated by a line break, labeled clearly, and designed to be easily copied.

Terms

Absolute Monarchy: Government where a single ruler holds unrestricted power, often by divine right. Examples: Louis XIV’s Versailles centralization (Edict of Nantes revoked, 1685); Peter the Great’s Table of Ranks (1722).

Nobility: Privileged class with inherited titles and land. Examples: French nobles at Estates-General (1789); Russian boyars under Peter’s Westernization.

Aristocracy: Elite ruling class, often noble. Examples: British lords post-Glorious Revolution (Bill of Rights, 1689); Hapsburg nobility under Maria Theresa.

Enlightened Absolutism: Absolute rule adopting Enlightenment reforms. Examples: Catherine the Great’s Nakaz (1767); Frederick the Great’s serfdom reforms.

Westernization: Adoption of Western European culture and technology. Examples: Peter the Great’s navy (Great Northern War); Catherine importing Voltaire’s works.

Parliament: Legislative body limiting monarchical power. Examples: English Civil War victory (Charles I executed, 1649); Glorious Revolution (1688–1689).

Oligarchy: Rule by a small elite group. Examples: British Whigs post-1688 (Walpole); French parlements pre-1789.

Traditional Rights: Long-standing privileges or customs. Examples: Magna Carta roots (1689 Bill of Rights); French feudal dues abolished (August Decrees, 1789).

Louis XIV’s Dynastic and State Interests: Policies enhancing Bourbon power and France. Examples: War of Spanish Succession (Treaty of Utrecht, 1713); Colbert’s mercantilism (French East India Company).

Enlightened Ideas: Reason, liberty, and progress from the Enlightenment. Examples: Locke’s Two Treatises (1688 influence); Rousseau’s Social Contract (1789 Declaration).

Constitutional Monarchy: Monarchy limited by a constitution. Examples: Britain post-1688 (Bill of Rights); France’s 1791 Constitution (Legislative Assembly).

Nationalism: Collective identity tied to culture or history. Examples: French levée en masse (1793); German resistance (Battle of Leipzig, 1813).

Legal Status of Women: Limited rights under law. Examples: Exclusion from National Assembly (1789–1791); Olympe de Gouges’ Declaration (1791).

Revolutionary Ideas: Radical concepts challenging authority. Examples: Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789); Robespierre’s terror speech (1793).

Emperor: Ruler of an empire, above a king. Examples: Napoleon’s coronation (1804); Hapsburg Leopold II at Westphalia (1648).

Facade: Superficial appearance masking reality. Examples: Versailles under Louis XIV; Napoleon’s Continental System (1812).

New Military Tactics: Innovative warfare strategies. Examples: Napoleon’s corps system (Austerlitz, 1805); Prussian tactics (Seven Years’ War).

Balance of Power: Strategy preventing one state’s dominance. Examples: Peace of Westphalia (1648); Congress of Vienna (1815).

Commercial Revolution: Economic expansion via trade and colonization. Examples: British Navigation Acts (1651); Dutch trade in Amsterdam.

Market Economy: System based on supply and demand. Examples: Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776); Britain’s Corn Laws debate.

Mercantilism: Policy maximizing exports and state wealth. Examples: Colbert’s tariffs (1660s); British Sugar Act (1764).

Transatlantic Slave-Labor: Forced labor system for American plantations. Examples: Saint Domingue sugar (Haitian Revolution); British Triangular Trade.

Overseas Products: Colonial goods driving European economies. Examples: Caribbean sugar; Virginia tobacco.

Raw Materials: Unprocessed resources for manufacturing. Examples: Baltic timber (British navy); American cotton (textiles).

Population Growth: Increase due to food and medicine advances. Examples: British enclosures (18th century); French rural boom (pre-1789).

Inoculation: Early vaccination against smallpox. Examples: Montagu’s smallpox efforts (1721); Jenner’s vaccine (1796).

Illegitimate Birth Rate: Births outside marriage, rising in cities. Examples: Paris during Revolution; British urban shift (enclosures).

Rural/Urban: Divide between countryside and cities. Examples: French peasants vs. sans-culottes (1789); British enclosures.

Consumer Revolution: Rising demand for goods. Examples: British tea/sugar boom (18th century); French fashion (Versailles).

Commercial Rivalries: Competition for trade dominance. Examples: Seven Years’ War (1756–1763); Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652–1674).

Natural Rights: Inherent rights to life, liberty, property. Examples: English Bill of Rights (1689); French Declaration (1789).

Exclusion of Women from Political Life: Denial of women’s political participation. Examples: Estates-General exclusion (1789); Rousseau’s Emile (1762).

Salons: Intellectual gatherings hosted by women. Examples: Geoffrin’s salon (Voltaire); Prussian salons (Frederick II).

Literate Public: Educated class reading widely. Examples: Encyclopédie readers (1751–1772); What Is the Third Estate? (1789).

Divine Right: Monarchs chosen by God. Examples: Louis XIV’s Versailles; James II ousted (1688).

Natural Sciences: Empirical study of the world. Examples: Newton’s Principia (1687); Voltaire’s Letters (1733).

Free Trade and Free Market: Minimal government interference in trade. Examples: Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776); Post-1815 British debates.

Deism: Rational belief in a non-intervening God. Examples: Voltaire’s Philosophical Dictionary; Franklin’s deism.

Skepticism: Doubt toward authority or religion. Examples: Voltaire’s Candide (1759); Hume’s Enquiry (1748).

Atheism: Rejection of God. Examples: D’Holbach’s System of Nature (1770); De-Christianization (1793).

Christian Movements: Religious revivals countering secularism. Examples: German Pietism (18th century); Wesley’s Methodism (1730s).

Baroque: Ornate style reflecting absolutism. Examples: Versailles (Louis XIV); St. Peter’s Square (Counter-Reformation).

Bourgeois Society: Rising middle class. Examples: Third Estate’s Tennis Court Oath (1789); British merchants (post-1688).

Revolution: Radical societal change. Examples: Bastille storming (1789); Glorious Revolution (1688).

Romanticism: Movement valuing emotion and nature. Examples: Goethe’s Werther (1774); Wordsworth post-1815.

Mass Politics: Broad political participation. Examples: National Convention elections (1792); Napoleon’s plebiscites (1800, 1804).

Epidemic Diseases: Widespread illnesses. Examples: Smallpox pre-inoculation (18th century); Plague decline (post-1648).

Events

English Civil War (1642–1651): Parliament vs. Charles I, ending in his execution. Examples: Charles I beheaded (1649); Cromwell’s Commonwealth.

The Glorious Revolution (1688): Overthrow of James II for constitutional rule. Examples: Bill of Rights (1689); William and Mary’s reign.

Peace of Westphalia (1648): Treaties ending the Thirty Years’ War. Examples: Dutch independence; Hapsburg decline.

Battle of Vienna (1683): European defeat of Ottomans. Examples: Sobieski’s victory; Ottoman retreat.

Rivalry between France and England: Competition for dominance. Examples: Treaty of Utrecht (1713); Seven Years’ War (1763).

French Revolution (1789–1799): Overthrow of monarchy, radical change. Examples: Tennis Court Oath (1789); Bastille (1789).

Reign of Terror (1793–1794): Radical phase with mass executions. Examples: Louis XVI executed (1793); Committee of Public Safety.

De-Christianization (1793–1794): Suppression of Christianity. Examples: Festival of Reason (1793); Clergy executions.

Congress of Vienna (1815): Restoration of stability post-Napoleon. Examples: Louis XVIII restored; German Confederation.

Agricultural Revolution (1700s): Farming advances boosting food supply. Examples: Tull’s seed drill (1701); Enclosure Acts.

Putting Out System/Cottage Industry: Home-based pre-industrial production. Examples: British wool; French textiles.

Scientific Revolution (1500s–1700s): Shift to empirical science. Examples: Copernicus’ heliocentrism (1543); Newton’s laws (1687).

Smallpox Mortalities: Deaths from smallpox pre-vaccination. Examples: 18th-century epidemics; Jenner’s vaccine (1796).

People

Louis XIV (1638–1715): French king of absolute monarchy. Examples: Edict of Fontainebleau (1685); Treaty of Utrecht (1713).

Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683): Louis XIV’s mercantilist minister. Examples: Tariffs (1660s); Saint Domingue colonies.

Peter the Great (1672–1725): Russian tsar who Westernized. Examples: Poltava victory (1709); St. Petersburg (1703).

Catherine the Great (1729–1796): Enlightened absolutist empress. Examples: Partition of Poland (1772–1795); Nakaz (1767).

Hapsburgs: Austrian ruling dynasty. Examples: Maria Theresa’s reforms; Joseph II (1780s).

Louis XVI (1754–1793): French king executed in Revolution. Examples: Estates-General (1789); Execution (1793).

Jacobin Republic (1792–1794): Radical revolutionary government. Examples: Monarchy abolished (1792); Law of Suspects (1793).

Robespierre (1758–1794): Jacobin leader of the Terror. Examples: Terror speech (1794); Thermidor (1794).

Toussaint L’Ouverture (1743–1803): Haitian Revolution leader. Examples: 1791 revolt; Defeat of Napoleon (1802).

Saint Domingue: French slave colony (Haiti). Examples: 1791 slave revolt; Independence (1804).

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821): French Emperor spreading revolution. Examples: 18 Brumaire (1799); Waterloo (1815).

Voltaire (1694–1778): Enlightenment advocate of rights. Examples: Letters on the English (1733); Church critique.

Diderot (1713–1784): Encyclopédie editor. Examples: Encyclopédie (1751); Anti-absolutism.

Locke (1632–1704): Natural rights philosopher. Examples: Two Treatises (1689); Bill of Rights (1689).

Rousseau (1712–1778): “General will” thinker. Examples: Social Contract (1762); Jacobin influence.

Adam Smith (1723–1790): Free market economist. Examples: Wealth of Nations (1776); Mercantilism critique.

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