Quiz

1. Explain how mental imagery differs from actual vision in terms of brain activity.

2. What is a prototype and how does it influence our thinking? Provide an example.

3. Compare and contrast algorithms and heuristics as problem-solving strategies.

4. Define functional fixedness and illustrate its impact on problem-solving with an example.

5. What are the key characteristics of divergent thinking? Why is it associated with creativity?

6. Briefly explain Spearman's g factor theory of intelligence.

7. What are the three types of intelligence proposed by Sternberg's triarchic theory?

8. What is the difference between reliability and validity in psychological testing?

9. Define intellectual disability based on the criteria outlined in the DSM-5.

10. What is the linguistic relativity hypothesis? Briefly describe an example of research related to this hypothesis.

Answer Key

1. Mental imagery and actual vision both activate areas in the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. However, actual vision leads to stronger activation in the visual cortex than mental imagery, suggesting that sensory input has a greater impact on this area than input from memory.

2. A prototype is the best example or representation of a concept. We use prototypes to quickly categorize new information by comparing it to the prototype we hold in our minds. For example, when asked to think of a bird, a robin might come to mind as a prototype, influencing how quickly we categorize other birds (like penguins) as fitting the "bird" concept.

3. Algorithms are a step-by-step set of rules that reliably generate a solution, though they may be time-consuming. Heuristics are mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that are more efficient but don't guarantee a correct solution, sometimes leading to errors in judgment.

4. Functional fixedness is a barrier to problem-solving where individuals get stuck thinking about objects and their typical uses. For example, if you need to hammer a nail but can't find a hammer, you might be functionally fixed if you don't consider using a heavy book or a rock in place of the hammer.

5. Divergent thinking is the ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem. It is associated with creativity because it involves thinking "outside the box" to come up with novel and original ideas rather than relying on a single, obvious solution.

6. Spearman believed that intelligence is comprised of a general intelligence factor (g factor) that underlies all cognitive abilities, and specific intelligence factors (s factors) that account for performance on specific tasks.

7. Sternberg's triarchic theory proposes three distinct types of intelligence: analytical (academic problem-solving), creative (generating novel ideas and solutions), and practical (street smarts and adapting to real-life situations).

8. Reliability refers to the consistency of a test's results over time. A reliable test will produce similar scores for the same individual on different occasions. Validity refers to a test's accuracy in measuring what it is designed to measure.

9. The DSM-5 defines intellectual disability as having an IQ score two standard deviations below the mean, significant deficits in adaptive behaviors that affect daily living, and an onset of these limitations during the developmental period.

10. The linguistic relativity hypothesis proposes that language influences the way we think. For example, research suggests that the number of color terms in a language can impact a speaker's ability to discriminate between different shades of color.

Essay Questions

1. Discuss how various problem-solving barriers, such as functional fixedness and mental sets, can hinder our ability to find effective solutions.

2. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different theories of intelligence, such as Gardner's multiple intelligences, Spearman's g factor, and Sternberg's triarchic theory.

3. Explain how cultural bias can influence the development and interpretation of intelligence tests. What measures can be taken to minimize cultural bias in intelligence testing?

4. Discuss the nature vs. nurture debate in the context of intelligence. Provide evidence from twin studies and adoption studies to support your arguments.

5. Describe the stages of language development from infancy through childhood. How does language influence our cognitive development?

Glossary

• Thinking (Cognition): Mental activities associated with processing, understanding, organizing, and communicating information.

• Mental Images: Mental representations of objects or events that are not physically present.

• Concepts: Mental categories used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

• Prototypes: The best example or representation of a concept.

• Problem-Solving: The cognitive process of overcoming obstacles to achieve a desired goal.

• Decision Making: The process of evaluating alternatives and making choices among them.

• Trial and Error (Mechanical Solution): Problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions until a successful one is found.

• Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution to a problem.

• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" used to make quick judgments.

• Insight: A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

• Functional Fixedness: A problem-solving barrier in which individuals struggle to see objects as being used for purposes other than their typical functions.

• Mental Set: The tendency to approach problems in the same way that has worked in the past, even if it is not the best approach for the current problem.

• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to favor information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.

• Creativity: The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas or solutions.

• Divergent Thinking: The ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem.

• Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down possible solutions to find the single best solution to a problem.

• Intelligence: The ability to learn from experiences, acquire knowledge, and adapt to novel situations.

• Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A standardized measure of intelligence.

• Standardization: Developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test.

• Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

• Reliability: The consistency of a test's results over time.

• Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Developmental Disorder): A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviors.

• Gifted: Individuals with significantly above-average intellectual abilities, typically scoring in the top 2% of the IQ range.

• Language: A system of symbols and rules used for communication.

• Grammar: Rules governing the structure and use of language.

• Phonemes: Basic units of sound in a language.

• Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language.

• Syntax: Rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.

• Semantics: The study of meaning in language.

• Pragmatics: The practical aspects of language use, including social conventions and non-verbal cues.

• Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: The idea that language influences thought.

• Babbling: Early stage of language development characterized by the repetition of consonant-vowel combinations.

• Telegraphic Speech: Stage of language development where children use short, grammatically simple sentences.

• Overregularization: Applying grammatical rules too broadly, resulting in errors like "goed" instead of "went."