Arousal and Behavior Concepts

Arousal Definition

• Arousal: Mobilization or activation of energy during preparation or actual behavior.
  • Involves action of the brain and body.
  • High arousal leads to a state of readiness for engaging in adaptive behavior.

Arousal and Behavior

• Arousal influences behavior in three main ways:
  1. Vigor of behavior: Level of energy displayed in actions.
  2. Persistence of behavior: Duration an individual can maintain action.
  3. Effectiveness of behavior: Quality and success of actions.
• Levels of Arousal:
  • Moderate Arousal: Facilitates vigorous and sustained action.
  • High Arousal: Leads to frenzied, disorganized behavior, often unsustainable.
  • Low Arousal: Results in feeble and brief actions.

Sources of Arousal

Categories of Arousal Sources:

1. Internal:
   • Deprivation states (e.g., hunger, thirst).
   • Effects of drugs or hormones.
2. External:
   • Stimuli like food, pain, touch.

Arousal: Specific vs. General

• Two classes of arousal:
  1. Stimulus Specific Arousal: Directly linked to specific stimuli (e.g., touch).
  2. Generalized Arousal State: A broad level of arousal that applies to multiple stimuli (e.g., central excitatory state).
• Interaction between types:
  • Stimulus specific arousal can lead to generalized arousal, highlighting how stimulus properties affect general arousal.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

• Studied by Fuster (1958) using rhesus monkeys:
  • Experimental Group: Underwent RAS stimulation—improved discrimination abilities between objects presented rapidly.
  • Control Group: No RAS stimulation—slower in learning.

Measuring Cortical Arousal

Techniques:

1. Positron Emission Tomography (PET):
   • Measures active positrons attached to glucose in the brain.
   • Higher activity indicated by higher glucose consumption.
2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):
   • Detects energy waves from hydrogen atoms that arise from brain oxygen usage.
   • Maps regions of brain activity.
3. Electroencephalogram (EEG):
   • Amplifies and detects electrical impulses along neural pathways.
   • Indicates brain activity in the cortex provided by:
     • Decreased wave height.
     • Increased wave frequency.
   • Based on electrical impulses and measures overall brain activity.

Psychological Arousal

• Reflects how subjects feel their level of arousal.

Types:

1. Energetic Arousal:
   • Ranges from tiredness to liveliness; correlated with positive affect and optimism.
2. Tense Arousal:
   • Ranges from calmness to anxiety; correlated with negative affect.

Optimal Arousal Theory

• Proposed by Hebb (1955): A U-shaped function representing the relationship between arousal and performance.
• Performance is contingent on varying levels of arousal according to individual needs.

Factors Affecting Optimal Arousal:

1. Task Difficulty:
   • Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908):
     • Higher arousal benefits easy task performance.
     • Lower arousal is better for difficult tasks.
2. Time of Day:
   • Optimal performance occurs from 12 PM to 2 PM due to peak working memory efficiency.
3. Personality Factors:
   • Introverts vs. Extroverts:
     • Introverts show greater physiological activation at lower levels of stimulation, indicating they become overstimulated more easily.
     • Extroverts seek more stimulation and perform better at higher levels of arousal.

Geen Study (1984)

• Investigated the impact of noise levels on introverts and extroverts during a learning task.
  • Participants selected their preferred noise levels, with introverts generally preferring lower levels compared to extroverts.
• Physiology measured using skin resistance responses (SRR) and heart rate to assess arousal levels.
• Findings indicated introverts' preference for less intense environments supports their lower optimal arousal levels.

Cognitive Anxiety and Optimal Arousal

Definitions of Anxiety in Sports Psychology:

1. Cognitive Anxiety: Negative thoughts or concerns about performance (e.g., fear of failure).
2. Somatic Anxiety: Self-reported physiological symptoms of arousal (e.g., a racing heart).

• Optimal performance occurs when both types of anxiety are within the personal optimal functioning zone.

Davis and Cox Study (2002)

• Explored cognitive and somatic anxiety among swimmers.
  • Findings showed that cognitive anxiety levels within the optimal zone correlated with better performance, but somatic anxiety results were inconclusive.

Theoretical Explanations for Optimal Arousal Theory

1. Hull-Spence Drive Theory (Spence et al., 1956):
   • Arousal serves to magnify correct responses, enhancing performance on easy tasks while potentially hindering performance on difficult ones.
2. Cue Utilization Hypothesis (Easterbrook, 1959):
   • Arousal shapes attention by limiting the cues available for processing; high arousal may reduce the number of cues attended to, altering task focus.