Ch 7 psyc

Chapter 7 Overview

• Focuses on the memory process, types of memory storage, memory retrieval, forgetting, and amnesias.

The Memory Process

• Memory: Ability to recall past events, images, ideas, skills.

• Functions as a storage system retaining learned information.

• Information processing likened to a computer, though they differ significantly.

• Information processing: Involves organizing, interpreting, and responding to environmental information.

Memory Processes

• Three key processes:

  • Encoding: Organizing sensory information for brain processing.

  • Storage: Keeping information readily available; locations in memory stores.

  • Retrieval: Recovering stored information from memory.

Encoding

• Occurs for all types of sensory information.

• The type and extent of encoding affect memory retention.

• Levels-of-processing approach: Complexity of processing influences how information is stored and retrieved.

  • More complex processing results in deeper encoding.

• Transfer-appropriate processing: Retrieval is improved when the type of information matches retrieval processes.

• Encoding specificity principle: Retrieval cues are more effective when they align with initially encoded information.

Neuroscience & Encoding

• Brain scan technologies reveal the real-time encoding process.

• Key brain structures involved in encoding:

  • Hippocampus: New personal memory formation.

  • Prefrontal Cortex: Integrates new and existing memories.

  • Temporal Lobes: Active during successful encoding, particularly associative learning.

  • Amygdala: Involved in encoding memories tied to emotions.

Types of Memory Storage

• Three-stage model:

  • Sensory Memory: Brief initial encoding of sensory stimuli.

    • George Sperling (1960): Information fades quickly (250 milliseconds).

  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporary storage for processing; fragile.

    • Research by Lloyd & Margaret Peterson (1959) established memory span.

    • George Miller (1956): 7 ± 2 items (average span).

    • Chunks: Manageable units for easier encoding.

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent extraction and ability to reconstruct previous experiences.

    • Unlimited capacity.

Short-Term Memory Details

• Rehearsal: Keeping information active in memory.

  • Maintenance rehearsal: Simple repetition.

  • Elaborative rehearsal: Involves linking information to enhance memory.

• Working Memory: Mechanism for temporary information storage and processing;

  • Involves conscious/unconscious integration;

  • Baddeley’s model shows subsystems (e.g., phonological, visual-spatial) that process different types of information.

Long-Term Memory Types

• Procedural Memory: Skills for complex tasks; perceptual, motor, cognitive.

• Declarative Memory: Information-based (facts) memory.

  • Subdivided into:

    • Episodic Memory: Personal event recall.

    • Semantic Memory: General concepts and knowledge.

• Explicit Memory: Conscious retrieval processes.

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious retrieval, automatic access.

Memory Storage Insights

• Brain imaging indicates multiple regions active in working memory.

• Case study of H.M.: Hipocampus damage led to inability to form new declarative long-term memories.

• Consolidation: Temporary memory conversion to a permanent state.

• Long-term potentiation: Increased neuron responsiveness enhances future stimulation responses.

Retrieval Processes

• Types of Retrieval:

  • Recall: Reproducing previously presented information.

  • Recognition: Identifying from unfamiliar options.

  • Relearning: Speed in relearning previous material.

Success & Failure in Retrieval

• Lost information may be retrievable with appropriate cues.

• State-dependent learning: Better recall when internal states match learning conditions.

• Primacy & Recency Effects: Better recall of items at the beginning and end of lists due to cognitive biases.

Imagery and Memory

• Imagery: Mental recreation aids elaboration and retrieval.

• Flashbulb Memories: Vivid memories of significant events, but can be inaccurate.

Gender & Culture in Memory

• Different retrieval cues may be influenced by gender.

• Memory contrasts between individualistic and collectivist cultures impact recall of details.

Summary of Memory Processes

• Key processes:

  • Encoding: Important in sensory memory.

  • Storage: Essential for short-term memory.

  • Retrieval: Crucial for long-term memory.

Forgetting Mechanisms

• Ebbinghaus (1885): Early studies on memory indicated quick initial forgetting.

• Causes of Forgetting:

  • Decay: Memory loss due to non-use over time.

  • Interference: Old information obstructs new input; categorized as proactive and retroactive interference.

  • Absentmindedness leads to significant encoding failures due to distractions.

Special Types of Forgetting**

• Eyewitness testimony can be misleading; influenced by wording and motivations.

• Motivated Forgetting: Repression of traumatic memories; hard to confirm scientifically.

Amnesias**

• Amnesia: Loss of memory due to trauma.

• Types:

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past events.

  • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories post-trauma, as exemplified by H.M.