Psychology Cognition Test

Section A

1. Outline one memory model with reference to one relevant study. The multi-store memory model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggests that memory consists of three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows from the sensory store to STM if attended to, and then to LTM through rehearsal. Sperling's (1960) study provides support for the existence of sensory memory, specifically iconic memory, by demonstrating that a large amount of visual information is available very briefly. Participants could recall significantly more letters from a briefly presented grid when given a cue to recall a specific row immediately after presentation compared to when asked to recall the whole grid. This suggests a high capacity but very short duration for visual sensory memory.

2. Describe one model of memory, with reference to one relevant study. The working memory model by Baddeley (1996) provides a more detailed account of STM, suggesting it is not a unitary store but rather an active workspace with several components. These components include the phonological loop (responsible for auditory and verbal information), the visuo-spatial sketchpad (for visual and spatial information), the central executive (which controls and coordinates the other components), and later additions like the episodic buffer. Baddeley's (1996) paper itself explores the functions of the central executive, highlighting its role in attention control and the manipulation of information in the other slave systems. Evidence for separate stores within working memory comes from studies like Baddeley, Lewis and Vallar (1984), which showed different effects on auditory and visual information recall tasks, suggesting separate processing mechanisms.

3. With reference to one study, outline one model of memory. Schema theory posits that we organize our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations into mental representations called schemas. These schemas influence how we process new information at encoding, storage, and retrieval. Bransford and Johnson's (1972) study demonstrates the influence of schemas on encoding and retrieval. Participants who were given a title ("Washing Clothes") for an ambiguous passage before reading it recalled significantly more idea units than those who received the title after reading or not at all. The title activated a relevant schema, providing a framework for understanding and remembering the information.

4. Describe one study related to one model of memory. Anderson and Pichert's (1978) study investigated the influence of schemas on memory retrieval, which is relevant to schema theory. Participants read a passage about a house from the perspective of either a homebuyer or a burglar. They then performed a filler task and recalled as much as they could. Following another filler task, some participants were asked to recall the story again, either from the same perspective or the other perspective. The results showed that participants who changed perspective during the second recall remembered an additional 7.1% of information that was relevant to the new perspective but not initially recalled. This suggests that the activated schema at the time of retrieval influences what information is accessed and remembered.

5. Describe one study investigating reconstructive memory. Anderson and Pichert's (1978) study (described above) is also a strong example of research investigating reconstructive memory. The fact that participants recalled different details about the house depending on the perspective they adopted, even during the second recall, indicates that their memory was not a veridical recording but was reconstructed based on the active schema. The new perspective provided a different framework, leading to the retrieval of previously unaccessed, yet relevant, information, highlighting the reconstructive nature of memory guided by schemas.

6. Describe schema theory, with reference to one relevant study. Schema theory proposes that our prior knowledge, beliefs, and expectations are organized into mental frameworks called schemas. These schemas help us to interpret and make sense of new information, influencing what we attend to, how we encode it, and what we can later retrieve. Darley and Gross (1983) conducted a study demonstrating how social schemas can influence our interpretation of others. Participants watched a video of a girl, Hannah, taking an intelligence test. One group was led to believe Hannah was from a high socioeconomic background, while the other group was told she was from a low socioeconomic background. When shown a subsequent ambiguous video of Hannah performing inconsistently on a task, participants who believed she was from a high socioeconomic background rated her performance as better than those who believed she was from a low socioeconomic background. This suggests that their pre-existing social schema about socioeconomic status influence their interpretation of Hannah's ambiguous behavior.

7. Outline one model in thinking and/or decision making with reference to one relevant study. The dual-process model of thinking (Kahneman, 2011) proposes two systems of thought: System 1, which is fast, intuitive, and automatic, and System 2, which is slower, deliberate, and analytical. System 1 relies on heuristics and prior experience, while System 2 involves conscious reasoning. Research on the framing effect illustrates this model. Although a specific study isn't detailed on pages 121-198, generally, framing studies show how the way information is presented (e.g., as potential gains or losses) can influence decisions, even when the underlying options are objectively the same. This suggests that System 1's quick, emotional response to the frame can override System 2's more rational analysis.

8. Describe one model of thinking and/or decision making, with reference to one relevant study. The adaptive decision-maker framework suggests that people possess a toolbox of heuristics and strategies, and they choose which ones to use based on the specific demands of the task and their goals. The choice of strategy depends on factors like time pressure, importance of accuracy, and available cognitive resources. Research in this area often examines how people simplify complex decisions using heuristics. For example, the availability heuristic (though a specific study isn't detailed in this section) demonstrates how people tend to overestimate the likelihood of events that are easily recalled or vivid in memory. This reliance on easily accessible information reflects an adaptive strategy for making quick judgments but can also lead to biases.

9. Describe one study investigating how one bias in thinking and decision-making influences human behaviour. The concept of confirmation bias, the tendency to seek out and interpret information that confirms pre-existing beliefs, can influence behaviour. While a specific study isn't detailed on these pages, confirmation bias can be seen in how people might selectively seek news sources that align with their political views, reinforcing their existing beliefs and potentially leading to more extreme or polarized opinions and related behaviours.

10. With reference to one relevant study, describe the effect of emotion on one cognitive process. Brown and Kulik's (1977) study on flashbulb memories describes the effect of emotion on memory. They proposed the term "flashbulb memory" to describe vivid, detailed, and long-lasting memories of surprising and emotionally significant events, such as the assassination of President Kennedy. Their research suggested that the high level of emotion experienced at the time of the event leads to a special, perhaps different, memory mechanism that encodes these details with great accuracy and vividness. Participants reported high confidence in the accuracy of these memories, suggesting a strong influence of emotion on the memory encoding process.

11. With reference to one relevant study, describe the influence of emotion on one cognitive process. (This question is very similar to #10). As discussed above, Brown and Kulik's (1977) study illustrates the influence of intense emotion on the cognitive process of memory encoding, leading to the formation of what they termed flashbulb memories, characterized by their vividness and perceived accuracy.

12. Describe one ethical consideration related to one relevant study from the cognitive approach to understanding behaviour. In Bransford and Johnson's (1972) study, participants were not fully informed about the true aim of the study until after they had completed the memory task. This lack of full disclosure at the beginning could be considered an issue related to informed consent. While the deception was arguably minimal and necessary to avoid demand characteristics, the ethical guideline of providing participants with sufficient information to make an informed decision about participation was not fully met at the outset. Researchers often weigh the potential benefits of the research against such ethical considerations, and debriefing participants afterwards is crucial to address any potential concerns.

Section B

1. Evaluate one or more models of memory. The multi-store memory model (MSM) by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) was an influential early model that provided a clear framework for understanding memory as consisting of separate stores. Its strengths include its explanatory power in outlining the basic flow of information in memory and distinguishing between short-term and long-term storage. Studies like Sperling (1960) provide support for the existence of a high-capacity but short-duration sensory store, and research on the serial position effect also aligns with the idea of distinct STM and LTM. However, the MSM has been criticized for being oversimplified. It portrays STM as a passive store, whereas the working memory model by Baddeley (1996) offers a more dynamic and complex view of STM as an active workspace with multiple components like the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive. Studies like Baddeley (1996) himself and Baddeley, Lewis and Vallar (1984) provide evidence for these separate components. A limitation of the MSM is its emphasis on rehearsal as the primary transfer mechanism to LTM, while research suggests that elaborative rehearsal and the depth of processing are more crucial. Additionally, the MSM doesn't adequately account for different types of LTM (e.g., episodic, semantic, procedural). The working memory model, while more detailed, has also evolved, with the addition of the episodic buffer to account for the temporary storage of integrated information from different subsystems. Both models have contributed significantly to our understanding of memory, with the working memory model offering a more nuanced perspective on short-term processes while building upon the foundational concepts of the MSM.

2. Discuss schema theory in relation to cognitive processing. Schema theory is a fundamental concept in the cognitive approach, proposing that schemas, which are organized mental representations of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations derived from past experiences, actively shape how we process information. Schemas influence all stages of cognitive processing: perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval. At the perception stage, schemas help us to make sense of ambiguous or incomplete sensory input by providing a framework for interpretation, as seen in how prior expectations can influence what we "see" or "hear" (though a specific study isn't detailed in these pages). During encoding, schemas affect what information we attend to and how we interpret it, influencing what gets transferred into memory. Bransford and Johnson's (1972) study clearly demonstrates this, showing how providing a relevant schema (the title) before reading significantly improved comprehension and later recall. At the storage stage, schemas can influence how information is organized and stored in memory, potentially leading to distortions or the filling in of missing details based on schema-consistent information. Finally, at retrieval, schemas act as retrieval cues, guiding what information is accessed and reconstructed. Anderson and Pichert's (1978) study highlights this, showing how a change in perspective (activating a different schema) led to the recall of different information from the same passage. However, schema theory also has limitations. It can be vague and difficult to test empirically in its entirety, as it's challenging to precisely define and measure schemas. Additionally, it may overemphasize top-down processing and not fully account for the role of bottom-up, data-driven processing in cognition. Despite these limitations, schema theory provides a valuable framework for understanding how our prior knowledge actively interacts with new information, influencing a wide range of cognitive processes and highlighting the reconstructive nature of memory and comprehension.

3. Discuss one cognitive process. Memory is a fundamental cognitive process that involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. It is not a single, unitary system but rather a complex set of interacting processes and stores, as evidenced by models like the multi-store memory model and the working memory model. Encoding is the process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory. This can involve different levels of processing, with deeper, more meaningful processing leading to better retention. Storage refers to the maintenance of encoded information over time, which can range from fractions of a second in sensory memory to a lifetime in long-term memory. Different memory stores have different capacities and durations. Retrieval is the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness. Retrieval can be influenced by various factors, including retrieval cues, the context in which the information was learned, and the individual's current state. Memory is also not a perfect recording of events but is often reconstructive, meaning we may fill in gaps or distort memories based on our schemas, expectations, and other factors, as demonstrated by studies on eyewitness testimony (though not detailed on these pages) and Anderson and Pichert's (1978) study. The study of memory is crucial for understanding how we learn, remember past experiences, and function in our daily lives. Research in cognitive psychology continues to explore the intricacies of these memory processes, including the neural mechanisms underlying them (though this is more in the biological approach) and the factors that can enhance or impair memory performance.

4. Discuss the influence of emotion on one or more cognitive processes. Emotion has a significant and multifaceted influence on various cognitive processes, particularly memory and decision-making. Regarding memory, as seen in Brown and Kulik's (1977) research on flashbulb memories, highly emotional events tend to be remembered with greater vividness and detail, at least in people's subjective reports. The emotional arousal at the time of encoding may lead to enhanced processing and consolidation of these memories. However, research also suggests that while confidence in the accuracy of flashbulb memories is high, their actual accuracy over time may not be consistently superior to memories of non-emotional events (e.g., Talarico and Rubin, 2003, though not detailed in these pages). Emotion can also influence the retrieval of memories, with mood-congruent recall suggesting that we are more likely to remember events that match our current emotional state. In decision-making, emotions play a crucial role, often interacting with the more rational, analytical processes described in dual-process models. For example, the framing effect (though a specific study isn't detailed in this section) shows how emotionally charged language (e.g., "loss" vs. "gain") can significantly alter choices, even when the objective outcomes are the same. Emotions can lead to biases in thinking, such as the availability heuristic, where emotionally salient events are more easily recalled and thus perceived as more likely. Furthermore, anticipatory emotions like fear or regret can heavily influence risk assessment and decision-making under uncertainty. The interplay between emotion and cognition is complex and dynamic, with emotions often serving as important signals that guide our cognitive processing and behaviour.

5. Discuss the influence of emotion(s) on one cognitive process. (This question is very similar to #4). As discussed above, emotions significantly impact the cognitive process of memory. Highly emotional events can lead to the formation of flashbulb memories, which are vivid and detailed recollections of the circumstances surrounding the event. Brown and Kulik's (1977) research suggested a special neural mechanism triggered by high emotion, leading to enhanced encoding. However, the accuracy of these memories over time has been debated. Furthermore, different types of emotions can have varying effects. For instance, positive emotions might enhance the recall of associated positive events, while negative emotions could bias memory towards negative experiences. The intensity of the emotion also plays a role, with very strong emotions potentially leading to narrowed attention and enhanced memory for central details at the expense of peripheral ones (though specific studies aren't detailed here). Overall, emotions are not simply separate from cognition but are intricately intertwined, shaping how we encode, store, and retrieve our experiences.

6. Discuss the influence of emotion on one cognitive process. (This question is very similar to #4 and #5). Emotion exerts a considerable influence on the cognitive process of thinking and decision-making. Our emotional state at the time of making a decision can significantly alter our choices, often in ways that deviate from purely rational models. For instance, fear might lead to more risk-averse decisions, while happiness could encourage more optimistic choices. The framing effect (though a specific study isn't detailed in this section) illustrates how presenting options with different emotional connotations (e.g., a "90% success rate" vs. a "10% failure rate") can lead to different preferences. Furthermore, emotions can act as heuristics, providing quick, intuitive judgments that may sometimes be adaptive but can also lead to biases. For example, if we have a strong negative emotional reaction to something, we might avoid it even if a more rational analysis suggests it's a beneficial option. Understanding the influence of emotion on thinking and decision-making is crucial in various real-world contexts, such as marketing, finance, and health behaviours.

7. Evaluate one or more studies on the influence of emotion on cognitive processes. Brown and Kulik's (1977) study on flashbulb memories was highly influential in highlighting the impact of emotion on memory. A strength of this study was its investigation of real-world, highly emotional events, giving it high ecological validity. However, the study relied on retrospective self-reports, which can be prone to inaccuracies and biases over time. Participants' confidence in their flashbulb memories was high, but this doesn't necessarily equate to accuracy (e.g., Talarico and Rubin, 2003). Additionally, the original theory proposed a special "now print" mechanism for these memories, which has been challenged by subsequent research suggesting that flashbulb memories may be better explained by the same cognitive processes that govern other types of memory, albeit with enhanced rehearsal due to the emotional significance and frequent retelling. Another area of research examines the framing effect (though a specific study isn't detailed on these pages), which demonstrates how emotionally valenced framing of options can influence decisions. Studies in this area often use controlled laboratory experiments, offering high internal validity but potentially lower ecological validity. Evaluating these studies involves considering the research methods used (e.g., questionnaires, experiments), the type and intensity of emotions investigated, the cognitive processes being examined, and the potential for biases in data collection and interpretation. Overall, research on emotion and cognition has provided valuable insights into their complex relationship, but methodological challenges remain in capturing the nuances of real-world emotional experiences and their impact on cognitive functions.

8. Discuss two or more ethical considerations in research investigating the link between emotion and cognition. Research investigating the link between emotion and cognition raises several important ethical considerations. One key concern is the potential to induce emotional distress in participants. Studies that aim to evoke strong emotions, whether positive or negative, need to ensure that participants are protected from harm and that any induced emotions are transient and do not have lasting negative effects. This requires careful planning of experimental procedures, including thorough risk assessment and appropriate safeguards. Another crucial ethical consideration is deception. Some studies in this area, such as those investigating the influence of manipulated feedback on emotional responses and subsequent cognitive tasks, may involve deceiving participants about the true nature of the study. While deception can sometimes be necessary to avoid demand characteristics, it must be justified by the potential benefits of the research, and participants must be fully debriefed afterwards, including being informed about the deception and the reasons for it. Furthermore, researchers need to ensure informed consent, meaning participants should be provided with sufficient information about the study's aims, procedures, and potential risks (including emotional ones) before they agree to participate. They should also be informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Maintaining anonymity and confidentiality of participants' data is also essential, especially when dealing with sensitive information related to emotions and cognitive responses. Researchers must weigh the potential scientific value of their work against these ethical principles and adhere to guidelines provided by ethical review boards and professional organizations like the APA and BPS.

9. To what extent has the reliability of one or more cognitive processes been evidenced in research? The reliability of cognitive processes has been evidenced in various ways through psychological research. In the context of memory, studies on the multi-store model have consistently shown a distinction between short-term and long-term memory through tasks like the serial position effect, where recall of items at the beginning and end of a list is better than those in the middle. This pattern has been reliably replicated across numerous studies, suggesting a reliable underlying structure of memory. Similarly, research on the working memory model has consistently demonstrated the existence of separate components like the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad through dual-task paradigms, where performing two tasks that rely on the same component simultaneously is more difficult than performing tasks that use different components. These findings have been reliably reproduced, supporting the structural reliability of the model. In the realm of thinking and decision-making, certain biases, like the framing effect (though a specific study isn't detailed here), have been consistently demonstrated across different populations and scenarios, suggesting a reliable tendency in human judgment. However, it's also important to note that the reliability of cognitive processes can be influenced by various factors, such as individual differences, context, and methodology. For instance, eyewitness memory, while a real-world application of memory, has been shown to be often unreliable and susceptible to suggestion (e.g., Loftus and Palmer, not detailed on these pages). Therefore, while research has provided substantial evidence for the reliability of certain aspects and models of cognitive processes, it also highlights the conditions under which these processes can be fallible.

10. Discuss reconstructive memory. Reconstructive memory refers to the idea that memory is not a literal recording of events but rather an active process of piecing together information based on stored knowledge, schemas, and current context. When we retrieve a memory, we don't simply replay a stored trace; instead, we reconstruct it, potentially filling in missing details, making inferences, and even incorporating information from other experiences or sources. Schema theory provides a key framework for understanding reconstructive memory. Schemas, our organized mental representations, influence what we remember by guiding encoding and providing a framework for retrieval. Bransford and Johnson's (1972) study showed how a schema (provided by a title) influenced what participants remembered from a passage. Anderson and Pichert's (1978) study further demonstrated how a change in perspective (activating a different schema) led to the recall of different details, indicating that retrieval is an active reconstruction influenced by the currently active schema. Reconstructive memory is also evident in research on eyewitness testimony (though specific studies are not on these pages), where leading questions and post-event information can significantly alter people's recollections of events. While the reconstructive nature of memory can lead to inaccuracies and distortions, it also allows our memory system to be flexible and adaptive, enabling us to make sense of incomplete information and draw inferences based on our past experiences.

11. Evaluate one or more studies investigating reconstructive memory. Anderson and Pichert's (1978) study is a valuable piece of research investigating reconstructive memory. A strength of this study is its clear demonstration of how different schemas (induced by perspective) can influence the information retrieved from the same memory. The change in recall after the perspective shift suggests that information relevant to the second schema was available but not initially accessed, highlighting the active, reconstructive nature of retrieval. The use of a relatively naturalistic text passage also adds to the ecological validity compared to purely artificial memory tasks. However, one potential limitation is the artificiality of the perspective manipulation. Participants were explicitly instructed to adopt a specific perspective, which might not fully reflect how schemas operate in everyday life. Another consideration is that the study focused on recall immediately after the second reading; it would be interesting to see if these effects persist over longer retention intervals. Overall, Anderson and Pichert's study provides strong evidence for the role of schemas in memory retrieval and supports the concept of reconstructive memory.

12. Discuss two or more ethical considerations related to one study investigating the reliability of one cognitive process. Let's consider Brown and Kulik's (1977) study on flashbulb memories, which investigates the reliability (in terms of vividness and detail) of memory for highly emotional events. One ethical consideration is the potential for triggering emotional distress by asking participants to recall traumatic or emotionally significant events like assassinations. While the study didn't induce these events, the act of recalling them in detail could be upsetting for some individuals. Researchers should be sensitive to this potential and provide resources or support if needed. Another ethical aspect relates to privacy and confidentiality. Although the events studied were public, participants were still sharing personal recollections and emotional responses. Researchers need to ensure that this information is handled with respect and that individual responses are kept confidential. Furthermore, although not a primary concern in this particular study, research on the reliability of memory, especially in the context of eyewitness testimony (not detailed here), can have significant real-world implications, particularly in legal settings. Therefore, the responsible reporting and interpretation of findings are crucial to avoid misapplication or harm.

13. Discuss one or more biases in thinking and/or decision-making. One pervasive bias in thinking and decision-making is the confirmation bias. This is the tendency to selectively seek out, interpret, and remember information that confirms pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses, while overlooking or downplaying contradictory information. Confirmation bias can affect various aspects of our lives, from how we evaluate evidence to how we form and maintain opinions. For example, someone who believes a certain political candidate is incompetent might actively seek out news articles and anecdotes that highlight the candidate's mistakes while ignoring or dismissing positive information. This bias can lead to the reinforcement of inaccurate beliefs and hinder our ability to make objective judgments. Another common bias is the availability heuristic. This is a mental shortcut where we estimate the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. Events that are vivid, emotionally charged, or frequently publicized are often more readily available in our memory, leading us to overestimate their probability. For instance, dramatic events like plane crashes might be overestimated in frequency compared to more common but less sensational events like car accidents. While the availability heuristic can be a quick and efficient way to make judgments in many situations, it can also lead to biased assessments based on the salience of information rather than its actual prevalence.