Memory Flashcards Psych Paper 1

Summary of Video Content

The content of this revision video is aimed at condensing previous material into a quick reference guide, focusing primarily on the key points of various topics within psychology. Viewers are encouraged to consult longer videos for more detailed explanations if needed, while being reminded of additional resources such as the Psych Boost app available on iOS and Android, which provides flashcards for testing knowledge on paper one content free of charge. Also mentioned is the availability of tutorial support videos and resources on the author's Patreon.

The Multi Store Model of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)

Overview

The multi-store model is a theoretical cognitive model illustrating how the memory system processes information.

First Store: Sensory Register

  • Function: Receives raw sensory impressions.
  • Attention: Transfers information to short-term memory (STM).
  • Coding: Modality specific.
  • Capacity: Very large; encompasses all sense impressions at any moment.
  • Duration: Very brief, approximately 250 milliseconds, though it varies by store.

Second Store: Short Term Memory (STM)

  • Function: Receives information from sensory memory through attention and from long-term memory (LTM) via retrieval.
  • Maintenance: Information is retained through rehearsal, known as maintenance rehearsal, or by linking it to information already stored in LTM, termed elaborative rehearsal.
  • Coding: Primarily acoustic.
  • Duration: Roughly 18 seconds.
  • Capacity: Limited to 7 items, with the understanding of 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956).
  • Information Loss: Occurs through displacement (new info entering STM) or decay (loss over time).

Third Store: Long Term Memory (LTM)

  • Function: Permanent information storage.
  • Capacity: Theoretically unlimited; forgetting is often about inaccessibility rather than loss.
  • Coding: Semantic (related to meanings). To retrieve LTM, information must be transferred back to STM.

Evaluations of the Multi-Store Model

  • Separation of STM and LTM: Supported by the primacy and recency effects observed by Glanzer and Cunitz, which showed that items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list are recalled better due to distinct storage in LTM and STM respectively.
  • Capacity and Duration of Sensory Register: Sperling's research (1960) indicated that a row of a 12-letter grid recalled accurately 75%, yet could not be fully written down due to swift forgetting; thus, duration is short.
  • Baddely's Research on Coding: Four groups of participants were presented with word lists to determine the impact of acoustic and semantic similarities. Immediate recall was negatively affected by acoustic similarity, whereas semantic similarity impeded recall after 20 minutes, supporting distinct coding in STM and LTM.
  • Capacity Calculation by Jacobs: Discovering an average recall of 7 letters and 9 numbers suggests that STM's capacity is indeed limited. Through chunking, individuals can improve recall by organizing information into smaller units.
  • Duration Findings: Peterson and Peterson (1959) demonstrated that recall of a three-letter trigram declines to below 10% within 18 seconds of distraction, indicating a very short duration for STM. Waggoner’s diary study (2006) indicated a long duration for LTM, with significant recall rates even years later.
  • Bayrek’s Nature of Long-term Memory: Found high recall rate for school friends' names years later, establishing that LTM potentially holds memories for many years.
  • Limitations and Generalizations: The experiments associated with the MSM often exhibit low ecological validity, suggesting findings may not apply broadly to real-world memory use.

Types of Long Term Memory

Long-term memory can be differentiated into three primary categories:

Declarative (Explicit) Memory

  • Definition: Memories that can be consciously accessed and articulated in words.
  • Types: 1) Episodic Memory: Relates to autobiographical experiences; time-stamped and often emotionally influenced, associated with the hippocampus.
    2) Semantic Memory: Consists of facts and knowledge, also declarative and consciously recalled, but not time-stamped.

Non-Declarative (Implicit) Memory

  • Definition: Non-consciously recalled memories that are difficult to express in words.
  • Types: Procedural Memory: Involves skills and tasks, often learned in childhood; operates unconsciously and is associated with the motor cortex and cerebellum.

Brain Region Associations

  • Bergara Kadim’s Findings: Damage to the hippocampus indicates episodic but not semantic amnesia, supporting distinct brain regions for these types of memory.
  • Application of Case Studies: Clive Wearing's case illustrates the separation of episodic, semantic, and procedural memory by observing his inability to form new memories while retaining procedural abilities.
  • Tovlings’ fMRIs: Provided clarification of brain areas associated with types of memory, validating findings from individual case studies through empirical investigation.

Relation Between Memory Types

  • Overlap: Some theorists suggest the lines between episodic and semantic memory are not as distinct, as episodic experiences can transform into semantic knowledge over time, which is part of a broader memory system.

The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)

Overview

Created to replace the simple notion of short-term memory from the MSM, this model presents working memory as an active processor rather than a passive store.

Components of the Working Memory Model

  • Central Executive (CE): Oversees attention, filters information, and oversees the operation of subsystems, limited to managing four items at a time.
  • Phonological Loop (PL): Deals with sound information, possesses two parts: the phonological store (inner ear) and the articulatory process (inner voice) that repeats information sub-vocally.
  • Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSS): Processes visual and spatial information, consisting of the visual cache for form and color, and the inner scribe that manages spatial relationships.
  • Episodic Buffer: Introduced in 2000, integrates and stores information from various sources and is linked to the CE.

Evaluations of the Working Memory Model

  • Dual Task Studies: Evidence like that from Baddeley’s studies showing performance improves with non-overlapping tasks supports the idea of separate processing streams within the VSS and PL.
  • Case Studies: KF's impairment highlights selective deficits in verbal memory, supporting the idea of separate memory systems.
  • Neuroscientific Evidence: Research using fMRI techniques shows more activation in different brain regions when executing tasks in integrated versus isolated formats, consistent with the division of processing responsibilities outlined in the model.
  • Word Length Effect: Baddeley's finding that monosyllabic words are easier to recall than polysyllabic ones supports the phonological loop's capacity defined by the time to speak the words.

Limitations and Critiques

  • External Validity Concerns: Tasks in working memory research often lack real-world relevancy; thus, findings might not accurately reflect everyday memory usage.
  • Central Executive Functionality: The concept of the central executive is not thoroughly delineated and requires further development, as its functions remain vaguely defined.
  • Observational Challenges: Memory processes cannot be directly observed, necessitating inference that could lead to incorrect assumptions about cognitive processes.

Explanations for Forgetting

Interference Theory

The theory posits that interference from other memories disrupts the recall of information.

  • Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with the ability to learn new information.
  • Retroactive Interference: New information hampers the recall of previously learned information.
  • Sensitivity to Time: Interference tends to be stronger when items are learned closely together in time.

Cue-Dependent Forgetting

  • Cues: Lacking appropriate cues during recall can lead to forgetting, even if information is stored in LTM.
  • Encoding Specificity Principle: Cues that match conditions where information was encoded improve recall.
  • Context-Dependent Cues: Aspects of the environment can function as cues; changes in environment can inhibit memory retrieval.
  • State-Dependent Cues: Internal states like emotion or physiological conditions also provide cues; mismatched states inhibit recall.

Evaluative Studies on Forgetting

  • Interference Studies: Research such as that by Schmidt, Greenberg, and Underwood supports interference effects in forgetting, notably when new memories resemble old ones closely.
  • Cues' Effectiveness: Experiments show that recall improves significantly when participants are tested in the same environment or internal state they learned the material.

Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony

Memory Reconstruction

  • Reconstructive Memory: Bartlett's theory posits that memory recall is not a straightforward retrieval but is reconstructed influenced by previous knowledge.
  • Leading Questions: Questions phrased in a suggestive manner can distort memory recall.
  • Post-Event Discussion: Discussions among witnesses can lead to memory conformity, altering individual accounts.
  • Anxiety: Anxiety can enhance or impede memory retrieval; the Yerkes-Dodson Law suggests an optimal level of anxiety for memory performance, though beyond that, stress leads to decreased recall accuracy.

Research Findings

  • Loftus and Palmer: Research demonstrated that the phrasing of a question could lead participants to remember events differently, supporting the idea of memory distortion.
  • Johnson and Scott: Found a significant impact of anxiety on memory recall, with higher anxiety (due to a weapon) leading to lower identification accuracy.
  • Cognitive Interview Strategies: Techniques designed to improve eyewitness recall accuracy, such as context reinstatement and changing perspective, have shown effectiveness in enhancing detail retrieval while requiring careful administration to avoid misinformation.

Cognitive Interview Techniques

Cognitive Interview Components:

  • Context Reinstatement: Encouraging the witness to return mentally to the scene, enhancing cue-related recall.
  • Report Everything: Urging complete recall may uncover important but overlooked details.
  • Change Perspective: Advising witnesses to recount events from another's viewpoint can disrupt schematic biases.
  • Recall in Reverse Order: Asking for details in a non-linear fashion checks the validity of memories and helps reduce schema influence.

Evaluations of the Cognitive Interview

  • Effective Training Impact: Research indicates a significant improvement in information recall using cognitive interview techniques compared to traditional questioning methods.
  • Meta-Analysis Findings: Studies show that while cognitive interviews enhance accurate recall, they may also increase the volume of incorrect information recalled.
  • Limitations: Cognitive interviews can be time-consuming and require extensive training, which may not be financially viable for all police departments. Additionally, they can be less effective for young children due to developmental factors.

Conclusion

The content evaluated illustrates the importance of memory structures and processes within cognitive psychology and highlights the need for ongoing research into memory, forgetting, and effective recall strategies. This comprehensive overview provides insights into understanding psychological concepts and their applications in real-world scenarios, particularly in the context of eyewitness testimony and memory reconstruction. Resources such as the Psych Boost app and Patreon offer further tools for study and reference.