A&P Notes (Exam 1)

Chapter 1

Introduction to the field

-Anatomy Studies structures

→ Gross Anatomy

→ Microscopic anatomy

→ Regional Anatomy: examining all the structures within a specific area of the body, such as the ankle and foot, to understand how they interact and function together

→ Systemic Anatomy (this course)

-Physiology studies the chemistry of the human body, what things do in the body (combined completes a full understanding of the human bodies)

Levels of Organization

-Chemical Level: smallest level, atoms and molecules

-Cellular Level: unit of life, Cells

-Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells that work together

-Organ Level: Tissues working together

-Organ System Level: organs perform coordinated functions to meet demands of the body, digestive system

-Organismal level: human body as a whole (animal, any living thing)

→ all levels are connected and stacking, one makes the other from top to bottom

Organ Systems

-integumentary system

-Skeletal system

-Muscle system

-Nervous system

-endocrine system:

-Cardiovascular system:

Anatomical Position

-hands are supinated (facing upward, palms up)

-left and right side are based on patients position

-Prone: facing forwards (standard position)

-Supine: facing backwards (aka see your spine)

Regional or directional terms

-describing relative locations (rough area)

-Axial Region: Head neck and trunk

-Appendicular Region: Limbs and girdles

Serous Membranes

-Covers Walls and organs in thoracic cavity

→ parietal (lines wall of cavity) vs. Visceral layer (lines outside or organ itself)

→ space between filled with fluid to prevent friction between organs and wall

-pleura cavity: surrounds lungs

-Pericardium cavity: pericardial activity, heart

-Peritoneum cavity:

Organization

-trillions of cells all stacking on one another

→ atoms→ molecules→cells→tissues→organs→systems

-multiple compartments

-leads to metabolism

Metabolism

-first law of thermodynamics: energy cannot be created or destroyed

-anabolism(small/ similar molecules combined in a larger or more complex substance) vs. catabolism reactions (Complex broken down and energy is released as a result)

-ATP=energy

-adenosine triphosphate

Functions of Human life

-Responsiveness: ability of an organism to react/adjust to situations (react to stimuli)

-Movement: motion of the body and its parts

→ joints of the body

→ digestive system through digestive track

→ movement of cells through the body to keep proper function

→ development(differentiation): changes body goes through as it gets older, cells become specialized for specific functions

→ growth: increase in size and number of cells, through utero

→ reproduction: producing new cells or organisms, procreation

Requirements for Human Life

-Oxygen: Needed for ATP production

-Nutrients: substance in foods and beverages essential to human survival

→ Water (most Critical)

→ Macronutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins which provide amino acids

→Micronutrients: vitamins and minerals

-temperature and pressure ranges: 37C or 98.6 Fahrenheit

→ when body is outside of ranges the feedback loops get out body back to homeostasis

-Pressure: dissolved gasses, ability to breath

Homeostasis/ Negative Feedback/ Positive feedback

-maintenance of a stable internal environment

→ feedback systems

→ Set point: ideal setting of body temperature

→ Normal Range: amt of fluctuation allowed before feedback systems are put in place

→ Negative Feedback system: reverses deviation from set point

→ receptor: sensor, detects change in body and sends signal through afferent pathway to control center in the body

→ control center: interpret signal, exit out efferent pathway to the effector

→ effector: organ or system that acts out the homeostasis

→Positive feedback system: intensifies change, only used when there is a definite endpoint (produce a result that will return body to homeostasis)

→ childbirth aka pushing/contractions and blood clotting, secreting oxytocin

→ blood clotting after a cut or blood

Homeostasis between systems

-health of skeleton requires calcium ions (integumentary, digestive and urinary systems work together to maintain normal range or calcium ions in bloodstream)

-Blood Pressure (BP): normal range is 120/80, Circulatory, urinary, endocrine system work to maintain stable BP

-Respiratory: function: Circulatory, muscular and nervous systems work together to maintain a normal respiratory function

Important Questions

-what is homeostasis

-what is the point we are looking to get to in homeostasis, set point

-what is negative feedback, reverses body system to return to homeostasis

-what is positive feedback system: intensifying action

-when is a positive feedback system put into play?

-how many anatomical planes? 3, frontal, sagittal, transverse

Chapter 2

The Chemical Level of Organization

Elements and atoms

-anything that occupies space and has mass

-Matter: the substance of the universe

→ mass: amount of matter contained in an object

→ weight: mass affected by the pull of gravity

-Element: pure substance made of subatomic particles, cannot be created or broken down by ordinary chemicals

-Compound: Two or more elements joined by chemical bonds

-Atoms: smallest unit of an element (protons +, neutrons +/-, Electrons -)

→ atomic mass number (# of protons and neutrons) and Atomic Number (# of protons in nucleus)

*chemistry notes from last year describe this better

Atomic Structure

-Planetary Model: electrons orbit the nucleus like a planet (limited electrons per orbital)

-Electron Cloud Model: electrons float and bounce around nucleus, more accurate representation

-hydrogen(1), sodium(11), potassium(19), calcium(20), carbon(6), nitrogen(7), oxygen(8)

-electron shells: 1-5 shells,

→ first shell holds 2, the rest hold 8

→ s(2)-p(6)-d(10)-f(14),

→ Valence Shell-outermost ring of e- (full shell would make the atom more reactive, want to have a full 8, think of lewis structure with the octet rule)

-Isotope: different number of neutrons in the nucleus (radioactive Isotope-nucleus decays which gives off subatomic particles and electromagnetic energy)

Chemical Bonds

Covalent Bonds

-Ionic Bonds: ions of opposite charges attract each other, transfer of electrons

→ cations(+) and anions(-) attract each other

-Covalent Bonds: sharing of electrons to stabilize (polar[arrows face the same direction] and nonpolar[arrows pulling apart])

-Hydrogen Bonds: weak bonds between polar molecules

→ connecting S+ and S-

Chemical Reactions

-energy(ATP) is required to break and create new chemical bonds

→ Kinetic energy

→ Potential Energy

→ Chemical Energy:

→ Mechanical, Radiant, Electrical

-Characteristics:

→ reactant: one or more substances that enter the reaction

→ Product: one or more substances produced by a chemical reaction

-Synthesis: two components bond (Note+Book→ Notebook)(A + B → AB)

-Decomposition: one component breaks into two (BookWorm→ Book + Worm) (AB → A + B)

-Exchange: Components are rearranged (Notebook+ Worm→ Note+BookWorm)(AB+C→A+BC)

-Influencing factors:

→properties of reactants

→ temp

→ concentration

→ pressure

→ catalysts (enzyme)

-Activation energy

Acids/Bases/Salts

-pH Scale: how acidic or how basic an element is (0-14)

→ less than 7 is acidic

→ 7 is neutral

→ above 7 is basic

-represented in x^10 with each step up the scale (reverse for going down)

Buffers

-Buffer: weak Acid and conjugate base

→ physiological buffers: respiratory and urinary systems

→ Chemical Buffers: kidney, protein systems, lung

→ acidosis and alkalosis

Water

→ temperature regulation

→ hydrophilic: like water, will dissolve

→ Hydrophobic: doesnt like water, will not dissolve

-Dehydration Synthesis(removal of H2O) : removal of OH from one side and H from the other side of the reaction

-Hydrolysis(addition of H2O): adding OH to one side of the reactions and H to the other

-1 Mole (M) = 1 Liter

Macronutrients

-Monomer- a repeating subunit of polymer (simple sugar, amino acids, fatty acids, nucleotides)

-Polymer: many linked monomers (carbohydrates-hydrated carbon-, proteins, phospholipids, DNA/RNA)

→ both are required to sustain life and fuel our cellular processes

-Macromolecules: will always have some sort of carbon bonding (carbon is important in the body)

Carbohydrate basics

*used for quick energy, first energy source used*

-monosaccharides (simple sugars), serve as fuel source

→ all body cells can use glucose, when glucose is broken down it produces ATP

→ cell structure: binds with proteins and lipids

-five monosaccharides:

→ 3 hexose sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose)

→ 2 pentose sugars (ribose[make DNA], deoxyribose[Make RNA])

-Disaccharides

→ pairs of monosaccharides connected through Glycosidic bonds (Glyco – sugar)

→sucrose, lactose, and Maltose

→ consumed in diet (Split into monosaccharides via hydrolysis)

- Polysaccharides

→Starches (plant-based foods, Easily digestible)

→Glycogen (stored in tissues)

→ Cellulose (cell wall, fiber, great for digestive process but not easily broken down)

Lipids: Triglycerides

-lipid: non polar hydrocarbon, hydrophobic

-Triglycerides: found in body tissues and referred to as fat, formed through the combination of glyceride and the fatty acid chain

→ fuel source (active while sleeping, used during long slow activities)

→ secondary food source to carbohydrates

→ vitamin absorption, cushion

-Fatty acid chains:

→ saturated: no double bonds (butter, lard) carbon is all bonded to hydrogen

→ unsaturated: double bonds (olive oil) wants to bond with fatty acid

→ trans fats:

-Other important types

→ phospholipids: disperse fats and lipids, keeping water inside

→ steroids: production of hormones (sex hormones) derived from cholesterol

→ prostaglandin: signaling molecules from unsaturated fatty acid chains

-fats allow us to float in water

Proteins

-molecules composed of amino acids and linked through peptide bonds

→ contain Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen (Sometimes Sodium)

→ dehydration synthesis

-Amino Acid Monomers

→ amino group + carboxyl group

→ 9 essential amino acids obtained through eating, other 11 can be created in the body (20 total)

→ contains acid and base

-Polypeptide: strand of fewer than 100 amino acids

← primary is the simplest form

← four polypeptides arranged together

Denaturation

-change in a proteins molecular structure due to heat or chemicals, loose their 3D shape (sometimes reversible)

Nucleotides

-phosphate group: one or more

→ pentose sugars (genetic coding, continual fuel source we have with ATP, nucleotides become our DNA and RNA)

→ attach via hydrogen bonds between the bases of the component nucleotides.

Chapter 3: The Cellular level or Organization

Cell/Cellular Membrane

-Cell: smallest unit of life, organized for metabolism, senses and responds to environment(homeostasis), reproduction

-Membrane structure:

→ Phospholipids (Amphipathic):

→lipid bilayer,

→ Heads: both polar and hydrophobic (attracted to intracellular and extracellular fluid)

→ Tails: non-polar and hydrophobic

→ Interstitial fluid

-Membrane Proteins: Cholesterol

→ types of proteins: integral (run through protein) & peripheral(runs on one side of the cell and serves a specific function), glycoproteins(identifies what the cell is and why it is in our body), channel (allow ions to pass through cell membrane)

→ carriers: carry substance into the cell itself, need ATP and energy to bring substance across membrane (think of potassium pump)

Cellular Differentiation

Stem cell – unspecialized, divide without limit, several categories

•Totipotent – can become anything

•Pluripotent – can become any human tissue cell

•Multipotent – can differentiate within a certain cell lineage (ectoderm, mesoderm, or endoderm)

•Oligopotent – can become 1 of a few different cell types

•Unipotent – can only make more of its own cell type

Cell Connections

-Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions found in intercalated discs (skin and heart) able to move but do not break, allows for the heart to beat

-Gap Junctions: openings that let ions pass from 1 cell to the next, found in intercalated discs (Heart cells)

-Tight junctions: Keeps space between cells close together (stomach and skin) sealed and does not allow anything to pass through cells (waterproof)

Membrane Transport:

-Selective permeability: allow only certain substances that meet certain criteria to pass through (lipids)

-Passive Transport:

→ no energy use

→ happens because of concentration gradient: difference of concentration of substances across the membrane (high concentration with move to lower concentration until it is equal across-homeostasis through diffusion)

→facilitated diffusion: cant cross lipid bilayer due to size, charge, or polarity (carrier protein transports inside) EX= glucose and glucose transporter into cytoplasm

→filtration:

→osmosis: simple diffusion of water (leads to isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions)

-Active Transport:

→ energy use (ATP must be present)

→ exocytosis (out of cell) and endocytosis (into a cell)

→ phagocytosis: cell eating of large particles (slide 13)

→ pinocytosis: cell drinking-fluids into cell membrane

Fluid Balance:

-trigger response of osmosis to bring homeostasis

-ICF: intercellular fluid

Overview of the Cell

-Cytosol + Organelles = Cytoplasm

-nucleus contains cells DNA

-Endomembrane system: System of channels continuous with nuclear membrane, provides passage for transporting, synthesizing, and storing

→Rough ER: embedded with Ribosomes, synthesis and modification of proteins

→Smooth ER: no ribosomes, synthesis of lipids

→ Golgi Apparatus: sorts, modifies, and ships products from RER

→ Vesicles:

→ lysosomes: Autophagy and Autolysis (self eating, breaking itself down, program death of a cell)

-Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, produce ATP with the presence of oxygen

-Peroxisomes: Contains enzymes and is a reactive oxygen species (lipid metabolism and detox)

-Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments (muscle contraction), intermediate filaments (resisting tension on the cell) and microtubules(provides structural support)

→ allows movement (cilla, flagella, transport of materials, muscles)

-The Nucleus: Control center of the cell, largest organelle, some cells may have multiple nuclei

→ lipid bilayer that surrounds it

→ nucleolus: deep center, produces rna for ribosomes

→ nuclear pores: regulated pathways

→ DNA packaging: Chromatin, Histone, Nucleosome, and chromosome

Cell Growth and Division

Sister chromatids

-After DNA synthesis, 2 chromosomes are connected by centromere

- 2 identical chromosomes are called sister chromatids

-chromatids split apart and each be a chromosome

Phases of Mitosis

-Timing of Mitosis:

→ checkpoints to make sure things are going correctly

→cells could become abnormalities or cancerous

→Immune system is designed to find and destroy abnormal cells

DNA Structure

-two strands that compliment each other

-Twisted ladder formation

-Four DNA Bases:

→ Adenine (A)

→Thymine (T)

→ Cytosine (C)

→ Guanine (G)

-Replication: cells split into daughter cells each with the same DNA (nerve, skeletal, and cardiac muscle cells do not divide) creating the exact same genetic code within the two daughter cells

-DNA: composed of 4 nitrogenous bases (adenine-thymine[A-T] and cytosine-guanine[C-G]) each with a sugar-phosphate backbone

-New DNA is scanned for mistakes, mistakes are then corrected is applicable

-Transcription-DNA into mRNA (messenger RNA-code goes into ribosomes to be translated into polypeptide for protein)

→ no thymine is is RNA (AUCG) Uracil replaces thymine in RNA transcription

-translation: DNA into polypeptide or protein

Protein Synthesis

-Genes determine which proteins are made

-these nitrogenous bases (DNA→ RNA) are grouped into triplet and each triplet is a code for a certain amino acid (happens in ribosomes)

- mRNA brings a chain of nucleotides to the ribosomes in Rough ER

-tRNA will have an amino acid and it will attach to the specific triplet codon creating the next link in the polypeptide chain

→ has the anticodon that will match the mRNA codon for an Amino Acid

→ rRNA: makes the ribosome and helps to read the mRNA during translation

-Polypeptide chain finishes, takes shape and is a protein

→ most chains are 200-300 Amino Acids long

Triplets

-RNA switches uracil for thymine to match up with adenine

-RNA only codes a part of the DNA strand called transcription

-RNA polymerase adds the nucleotides to make the mRNA strand

-Non coding regions must be spliced before protein synthesis

→ different riplets linked to different amino acids to create polypeptide chain

Review Questions

1. What are the types of membrane transport?

-Passive transport: concentration gradient does not require energy

-active transport: always uses energy

1. What are the Phases of Mitosis?

• Prophase

(cytokinesis occurs during cleavage furrow formation)

• Metaphase

• Anaphase

• Telophase

1. What are the four DNA Bases?

• Adenine, Guanine, Thymine (replaced with Uracil in mRNA), Cytosine

• → A-T, G-C

Chapter 4 :The tissue level of organization

Types of Tissues

-Epithelial tissue (epithelium, covers external surface, lining of tract and hollow organs, serves as a barrier from the outside world)

-Connective Tissue (lines cells and organs of the body, binds things together)

-Muscle Tissue (movement)

-Nervous Tissue (electrochemical signals)

Embryonic Origin of Tissues

-Totipotent cells: can divide and differentiate

-Three germ layers

→ ectoderm

→ mesoderm

→ endoderm

Tissue Membranes

-Thin layer of cells that cover connective tissue membranes and epithelial membranes

→ epithelial membranes include (connect to connective tissue membranes): mucus membranes, serous membranes, cutaneous membranes

Basics of Epithelial Tissue/Membranes

-covers all surfaces exposed to the outside of our bodies (hollow organs, blood vessels, and body cavities covered by endothelium)

-comes from all three germ layers

-little extracellular space between cells at the cell junctions (Avascular- no blood vessels cross)

-Basal Side has glycoproteins and collagen to connect to connective tissue, opposite side is the apical side

-Basal lamina and reticular lamina form a basement membrane

-Regeneration: rapidly replace dead or damaged cells (first line of protection against chemical, physical, and biological harm)

→ may secrete mucus or enzymes for defense

-Polarity: has a basal (near basement membrane) and apical surface

→ may have cilia on the apical membrane

→ innervated (has nerve fibers)

Classification

-based on shape of cell and number

of cell layers that are formed

-Squamous: flat and thin, simple found in kidney tubules, alveoli of lungs, and capillaries, most common to be stratified

→ looks like scales and have nuclei that are flat and horizontal

→ makes up endothelium

-Cuboidal: boxy, like a square, they are active is secretion and absorption

→ create ducts of glands for secretion, observed in the lining

-Columnar: taller than wide,may have cilia, good for secretion

→ nuclei located towards the bottom

-have Cilia (fibers are the top for absorption and secretion in digestion and reproduction areas)

-Pseudostratified: irregular shaped, appear to be stratified, but they are simple, may have cilia, good for secretion

→ not all nuclei are at the same level, may or may not have cilia, respiratory tract

Transitional Epithelium (not a classification, own unique area within epithelium)

-unique in that it changes shape

- only in urinary system

→ empty bladder: convoluted shape with cuboidal apical cells

→ full bladder: squamous shaped apical cells

Glandular Epithelium

-made up of modified cells to make and secrete various substances

→ Endocrine (releasing substances inside body- hormones) and exocrine (releasing substances outside body through a duct system- sweat, saliva)

→ Glandular structure (Unicellular and Multicellular)

Glandular Secretions:

• most common type is sweat glands

• Breaks off portion of cell (armpits and private areas) with bacteria breakdown causing smell

• Ruptured cell to release substance secretion

• Glands include: Serous Glands (watery, bloody) Mucous Glands (thicker, urinary or reproductive), and Ceruminous Gland (ear wax in ear canal)