AP_Euro_U7_AMSCO

Topic 7.1: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments

Essential Context (c. 1815 to c. 1914)

The rise of nationalism and imperialism in Europe during the 19th century was shaped by three significant movements:

• The Enlightenment: This intellectual movement emphasized reason, individual rights, and the emergence of liberal ideas. Thinkers such as John Locke and Voltaire inspired concepts of governance based on consent and civil liberties, challenging the absolute rule of monarchs.

• The French Revolution: Starting in 1789, it introduced radical ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, inspiring revolutions across Europe and igniting nationalist sentiments that encouraged people to fight for self-determination and national identity.

• The Industrial Revolution: This transformative period redefined production processes, leading to urbanization and profound changes in social structures. The growth of factories created a distinct working class that began to demand political reforms and greater civil liberties, laying the groundwork for subsequent labor movements.

By 1815, the coexistence of a burgeoning industrial working class and an aspiring urban middle class created pressure for political reforms, including the expansion of voting rights and a redistribution of wealth.

Ideological Changes

• Liberal Ideology: Rooted in Enlightenment principles, liberalism emphasized personal freedoms, legal equality, and property rights. It became associated with reform movements advocating for universal suffrage and social equity, as well as the idea of governance that reflects the will of the people.

• Conservatism: Emerged as a counter-response to liberalism, aiming to uphold traditional social structures and resist the changes brought by revolutionary ideas. Prominent conservative figures, including Edmund Burke, defended established institutions, monarchy, and the social hierarchy, perceiving reform movements as threats to societal stability.

Nationalism and International Stability

• Nationalism began to unify various European nations, especially in the cases of Italy and Germany, promoting a sense of collective identity among people of shared language and culture. This emergence of national identity posed a challenge to existing empires, such as Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia, which sought to suppress nationalist movements to maintain their multi-ethnic integrity.

• The growing tensions driven by nationalist aspirations and failed diplomatic alliances contributed significantly to international instability, setting the stage for World War I, as aspirations for national unification and independence collided with imperial ambitions.

Topic 7.2: Nationalism

Development and Influences of Nationalism

Defined primarily as an emotional attachment to one’s ethnic or cultural group, nationalism took shape in the 1800s initially as a cultural movement that celebrated ethnic histories and traditions.

• Over time, it evolved into a potent political ideology, promoting collective identity and cultural pride as cornerstones for demanding self-governance and resisting foreign domination.

Key Figures and Movements

• Romanticism: Played a critical role in the rise of nationalism by celebrating folk traditions and historical narratives through literature and art. Key figures included:

  • Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm: Known for their collection of German folktales, which fostered a sense of cultural identity among Germans.

  • Richard Wagner: His operas infused German mythology and national pride, significantly influencing nationalist sentiments.

  • Johann Gottlieb Fichte: A philosopher who promoted the idea of German superiority and cultural exceptionalism, stirring nationalistic ambitions.

Nationalism and Artistic Expression

• Art and literature of the time often depicted themes of heroism, sacrifice, and national identity, aligning closely with the political movements of the age. Artists and writers such as Victor Hugo articulated the struggles against oppression, intertwining their works with nationalistic fervor.

The Dual Role of Nationalism

• Nationalism fostered unity through shared identity and historical narratives, yet it also led to the oppression and marginalization of minority cultures. Furthermore, competing nationalist movements, such as Pan-Slavism, often incited conflicts among various ethnic groups.

Topic 7.3: National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

Unification of Italy

• Key Figures:

  • Giuseppe Mazzini: Founded the Young Italy movement, advocating for a unified Italian state based on democratic principles.

  • Camillo di Cavour: As Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, he spearheaded the unification through strategic diplomacy and military engagement, notably aligning with France against Austria in the second Italian war of independence.

• Risorgimento: A broader nationalist movement achieving the unification of Italy in 1861, which faced substantial challenges from Austrian influence and internal divisions among various Italian states.

Unification of Germany

• Otto von Bismarck: A master tactician, Bismarck employed realpolitik strategies to unify Germany by orchestrating conflicts that rallied the German states around Prussian leadership, culminating in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.

Impact on Austria and Other Regions

• Nationalism disrupted multicultural empires like Austria-Hungary, leading to internal strife and the eventual establishment of the Dual Monarchy, which attempted to reconcile competing ethnic demands while struggling to maintain stability.

Topic 7.4: Darwinism and Social Darwinism

Influence of Darwinism

• Charles Darwin: His groundbreaking theories of evolution and natural selection reshaped scientific thought, leading to contentious debates about human origins and biological diversity.

• Emerged from Darwin’s work, Social Darwinism applied the principles of natural selection to human societies, often used by imperialists to justify expansionist policies and the belief in racial superiority.

Ethical Implications

• Social Darwinism faced considerable moral criticism, as it was co-opted to rationalize racism, oppressive imperial policies, and eugenics movements, raising profound ethical concerns about its application in justifying inequality and discrimination.

Topic 7.5: Age of Progress and Modernity

Scientific and Intellectual Developments

• The Victorian Era was marked by notable philosophical movements, from materialism, which emphasized a reliance on physical matter, to positivism, which advocated reliance on empirical evidence.

• The rise of Modernism challenged established norms, encouraging experimentation in the arts and sciences, fostering a break from traditional forms and practices.

Artistic Shifts

• There was a significant shift towards realism, which sought to depict everyday life and social issues accurately, contrasting with the earlier Romantic movement focused on idealization and emotional expression.

Topic 7.6: New Imperialism: Motivations and Methods

Motivations Behind Imperialism

• Imperialism was largely driven by industrial nations' quests for raw materials to fuel their factories and markets to sell their goods. Economic motivations frequently masked a 'civilizing mission' rhetoric, positing that colonization was necessary for the development of supposedly 'backward' societies.

Technological Advances

• Innovations in military technology, such as the development of breech-loading rifles and machine guns, facilitated European powers in asserting control over vast territories in Africa and Asia. Medical advancements, particularly in combating tropical diseases, allowed for deeper and more sustained colonial encounters.

Global Impact

• The resistance from colonized peoples often resulted in violent conflicts, fostering rising anti-imperialist sentiments and sparking national liberation movements that directly challenged colonial rule and sought independence.

Topic 7.7: Imperialism's Global Effects

Societal Changes and Responses

• The impacts of imperialism altered political dynamics in Europe, giving rise to new nationalist movements in colonized regions that opposed imperial subjugation. Writers and activists, such as Joseph Conrad in his novel "Heart of Darkness," critiqued the moral failings of imperialism, while others like E.D. Morel highlighted the exploitation and atrocities occurring in places like the Congo Free State.

Competing Nationalisms

• The fierce competition among colonial powers for territory resulted in diplomatic crises, such as the Fashoda Crisis, revealing the high stakes of imperial rivalry. In colonized regions, nationalist movements mounted vigorous resistance, leading to varying degrees of success in their struggles for independence.

Topic 7.8: 19th-Century Culture and Arts

Artistic Movements

• Romanticism: This movement celebrated individuality and emotional expression, acting as a reaction against the previous emphasis on reason and order in the arts.

• Realism: Emerging as a counter to Romanticism, realism sought to portray the struggles of everyday life and society’s gritty realities, often highlighting the lives of the working class.

• Modern Art: This phase represented a significant departure from tradition, focusing on subjective interpretations and embracing new styles such as Impressionism and Cubism, which broke away from established conventions.

Continuities and Changes

• The ongoing tension between different artistic movements reflects the evolving relationship between art, society, and the political landscape, demonstrating how art responds to and critiques contemporary social issues.

Topic 7.9: Causation in 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments

Influence on Stability

• Nationalist and imperialist movements operated as major forces reshaping the balance of power within Europe, leading to systemic political and social strife that would ultimately culminate in global conflict, particularly as competing national identities collided with imperial ambitions. Both movements encapsulate underlying themes of competition, identity, and conflict that dominated the late 19th and early 20th centuries.