Learning	The process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Associative learning	Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or as a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Cognitive learning	The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Behaviorism (Behavioral perspective)	The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Stimulus	Any event or situation that evokes a response
Classical conditioning	A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s famous experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).
Neutral stimulus (NS)	In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)	In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response
Unconditioned response (UCR)	In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as when food is in the mouth)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)	In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned response (CR)	In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
Higher-order conditioning	A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.
Acquisition	In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.)
Extinction	In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)
Spontaneous recovery	The reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response
Stimulus generalization	In classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Stimulus discrimination	In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus.
Counterconditioning	Counseling technique used to help people deal with fears, where subjects are presented with a feared stimulus, but in a relaxed environment, until extinction occurs
One-trial conditioning	A type of learning where a single pairing of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus is enough to create a conditioned response, meaning an organism learns a new behavior after just one exposure. Often seen in situations with strong survival implications like taste aversion.
Biological preparedness	A predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value
Habituation	Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

Operant conditioning	A type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to occur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to occur if followed by a punisher
The law of effect	Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely
Operant chamber	In operant conditioning research, an enclosed device (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Reinforcement	In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Positive reinforcement	Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Negative reinforcement	Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Primary reinforcers	An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Secondary reinforcers	A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a conditioned reinforcer
Reinforcement generalization	In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation are applied in other, similar situations
Reinforcement discrimination	The ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced
Punishment	Any event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
Positive punishment	An event that administers an aversive, or unpleasant, stimulus as a way of decreasing the behavior that it follows
Negative punishment	The withdrawal of a rewarding stimulus, as a way of decreasing the behavior that it follows
Shaping	An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Instinctive drift	The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns
Continuous reinforcement	Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Partial reinforcement	Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Variable-interval schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Fixed-ratio schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after specified number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Social learning theory	The perspective in psychology that focuses on how we learn by observing and imitating others
Modeling	The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Vicarious conditioning	Learning that occurs by watching how others’ behaviors are reinforced or punished
Insight learning	Solving problems through sudden cognition, without any association, consequence, or model being presented; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Latent learning	Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Cognitive map	A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

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