Defining Intelligence

• Intelligence is difficult to define and its interpretation is contested.

• Different people possess varying capacities and abilities; it is not absolute (intelligent or not).

• Gardner (1999) proposed at least 7 distinct types of intelligence, which include:

  • Linguistic Intelligence (verbal skills)

  • Mathematical Intelligence (logical reasoning)

  • Spatial Intelligence (visualizing spatial relations)

  • Musical Intelligence (sensitivity to musical rhythms and sounds)

  • Kinesthetic Intelligence (physical coordination)

  • Interpersonal Intelligence (empathy, understanding others)

  • Intrapersonal Intelligence (self-awareness)

Emotional Intelligence

• Interpersonal intelligence is often referred to as emotional intelligence.

• A study by Ogundokun and Adeyemo (2010) examined emotional intelligence among Nigerian secondary school students, finding it measurable and correlating strongly with academic achievement.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

• IQ is a specific measure of intelligence, with an average score of 100, based on mathematical, verbal, and spatial skills.

• IQ testing has historically been used in the UK to determine educational pathways (e.g., 11-plus exam).

  • Results of the 11-plus:

    • Passing students attended grammar schools (academic curriculum).

    • Failing students attended secondary modern schools (vocational curriculum).

• Current debates question the objectivity and equality of IQ tests in relation to cultural influences such as class, gender, and ethnicity.

Criticism of IQ Testing

• Critics argue IQ tests may reflect cultural biases rather than intelligence:

  • Tests assume cultural knowledge that may not be familiar to all students, especially from minority backgrounds.

  • Kaplan (1998) noted outcomes on IQ tests depend on factors like education, reading habits, cultural upbringing.

• Flynn (1987) suggested IQ tests primarily assess linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities and do not encompass the broader dimensions of intelligence.

  • Raises questions about the types of intelligence valued in society, often reflecting those favored by powerful groups.

Power and Cultural Reproduction

• IQ tests contribute to cultural reproduction, serving as a social resource:

  1. Definitions of intelligence often favor the dominant class, gender, and ethnic interests.

  2. Acceptance of these definitions may cement lower social positions for less powerful groups.

• The ideology behind intelligence testing serves as a means of social control, perpetuating class disparities.

Relationship Between Intelligence and Achievement

• Agnostic Explanation: There is no agreed-upon definition of intelligence, making the real relationship between intelligence and academic achievement unclear.

• Positive Explanation: Assumes IQ tests measure significant cognitive skills relevant to education and work, reflecting the abilities valued in society.

• Negative Explanation: Highlights the impact of social backgrounds on intelligence measures, suggesting that cultural, economic, and social factors determine educational success more than innate intelligence.

Curriculum Influences

• Several factors influence curriculums:

  • Cultural: Curriculums often reflect the values of dominant ethnic groups, leading to an ethnocentric curriculum.

  • Gendered: Subject choices and teaching approaches can differ based on gender, reinforcing stereotypes.

  • Economic Demands: Education adapts to meet workforce needs, shifting subjects based on market trends.

The Hidden Curriculum

• Refers to implicit lessons learned through schooling, including values and social norms.

  • Intended Consequences: Teaching of values like obedience and effort.

  • Unintended Consequences: Norms about ability and status may perpetuate inequalities.

• Status developed in schooling environments can affect self-worth and perceived capabilities.

Cultural Capital and Habitus–Bourdieu

• Cultural Capital: refers to the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means. It includes education, intellect, style of speech, and even the ability to engage in certain cultural practices. In education, students from affluent backgrounds often possess higher levels of cultural capital, which helps them navigate educational settings more effectively.

• Habitus: refers to the deeply ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that we possess due to our life experiences. It shapes how individuals perceive the world and react to it, influencing behavior and attitudes. Habitus is formed through personal history and social context, affecting how cultural capital is utilized and assessed in various settings, particularly in education.