Renaissance and Exploration Flashcards

Renaissance and Exploration (1450-1648)

Contextualization 1.1: Middle Ages

• Middle Ages: Approximately 1,000 years characterized by limited growth and the increasing power of the church.
• Battle of Hastings (1066): Established Norman rule in England, forging ties with France (Normandy).
• Great Schism (1054): A significant division within the Christian Church.
• First Crusade (1095): A European victory.
• Concordat of Worms (1122): Shifted power towards national leaders.
• Second Crusade (1147-1149): Resulted in land returning to Muslim control.
• Third Crusade (1189-1192): Maintained Muslim control but allowed Christians to live and work in the Holy Land.
• Fourth Crusade (1202-1204): Crusaders targeted Constantinople instead of the Holy Land, leading to conflict between Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians over trading routes. The Pope condemned the Christian on Christian violence.
• Magna Carta (1215): Signed in England, shifting power towards the nobles.
• Pope Boniface VIII's Unam Sanctam (1302): Aimed to restore papal power over kings and nobles.
• Hundred Years War (1337-1453): Led to the distinct formation of England and France.
• Bubonic Plague (Black Death, 1346-1353): Weakened the church's authority, encouraging questioning.
• Peasant Rebellion (1381): Protested taxation of the poor, highlighting persistent issues.
• Cosimo de Medici (1415): Became the "Priore of the Republic" in Florence, with banking changes facilitating family wealth.
• Printing Press (1440): Enabled faster dissemination of ideas.
• Fall of Constantinople (1453): The Byzantine capital fell to the Ottoman Turks, diminishing Christian influence in the Middle East and intensifying focus on Europe.
• Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469): United Spain, leading to the expulsion of Jews and Muslims.
• War of the Roses (1455-1487): A fight for the English crown that established the current lineage of English kings.

Unit 1.2: Italian Renaissance

• Definition of Renaissance: A renewed interest in classical civilizations.
• Shift in Ideas:
  • Religious values.
  • Humanism: Focus on human values and agency.
    • Secularism: Separation from religious influence.
    • Individualism: Emphasis on personal achievement and unique identity.

Figures of the Italian Renaissance

• Petrarch
  • Investigated texts by Cicero.
  • One of the first to write in Italian vernacular, which eventually allowed Italian to take over Latin.
  • Viewed the Middle Ages as a dark period with declining knowledge and criticized contemporary writers and thinkers.
• Lorenzo Valla
  • Philologist: Analyzed texts with a focus on the history of language.
  • Determined that the Donation of Constantine was not written by Constantine because the language was inconsistent with 4th-century Latin.
• Marsilio Ficino
  • Connected the writings of Plato to Christianity.
  • Focused on Platonic love as an aspect of humanism.
  • Received patronage from the Medici family.
• Baldassare Castiglione
  • Authored "The Book of the Courtier", a guide on how to act in polite society.
  • Outlined the ideal characteristics of a gentleman: discipline of a knight, classical education in the arts, and knowledge of civics.
  • Described the ideal qualities of ladies: educated, patrons of the arts, and supportive of their husbands' potential.
• Niccolo Machiavelli
  • Served as a diplomat in Florence in 1498.
  • Witnessed violence and instability in Florence.
  • Supported a republic form of government but was exiled in 1512.
  • Authored "The Prince" in 1513, stressing the need for an absolute ruler who should use any means to take control.
  • Argued it is better to be feared than loved.
  • Presented a cynical view that may have been satire.
  • His ideas influenced many rulers.
• Francesco Guicciardini
  • Shared similar ideas to Machiavelli but had more government and religious experience.
  • Served as a governor, served under two popes, and held the position of lieutenant general.

Renaissance Art

• Emerged in the 6th century, flourished by 1465.
• Characterized by naturalism (realism) and geometric perspective.

The Medici Family

• Prominent banking family in Florence in the 1300s.
• Banking in the Middle Ages.
• Cosimo de' Medici (1377-1446): Commissioned Filippo Brunelleschi to rebuild the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence.
• Lorenzo de' Medici (1469-1492): Cosimo's grandson and patron to Botticelli.
• Sandro Botticelli: Painted "Primavera" in 1482, drawing on classical mythology with figures like Venus, Cupid, and Mercury.
• Donatello
  • Sculpted in marble and bronze.
  • Created schiacciato (flattened-out) sculpture, where flat marble pieces were chiseled to appear 3D.
  • Detailed faces.
  • David (1408-09).
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
  • Studied human dissections to enhance realism in painting.
  • Drew designs of machines.
  • Beyond realism, he aimed for idealism.
  • "Last Supper" - used fresco, perspective.
  • "Mona Lisa" - captured emotion, beyond realism
• Michelangelo (1475-1564)
  • Commissioned by the Pope for several jobs, helped the Pope revitalize the regency and power of the papacy.
  • Sistine Chapel.
  • The Last Judgement.
  • St. Peter's Basilica.
  • David.
• Raphael (1483-1520)
  • Frescoes in Vatican Palace using themes of classical education and perspective.
  • School of Athens (Aristotle, Plato).
  • Madonna of the Goldfinch.
• Architecture
  • Leon Battista Alberti & Andrea Palladio explained how to make two-dimensional objects look 3D, influenced by classical architecture featuring similar lines, columns, and triangles.

Unit 1.3: Northern Renaissance

• Similarities Between Italian and Northern Renaissance
  • Classical themes.
  • Religious themes combined with ancient themes.
  • Humanism focused on the care of fellow man.
• Differences Between Italian and Northern Renaissance
  • Focus on religion (Northern).
  • Illuminated manuscripts (Northern).
  • Netherlands (Northern).
  • Religious as royalty (Northern).
  • Secularism (Italian focused).
  • Criticism of Catholic Church (Northern).

Northern Renaissance Artists

• Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)
  • Learned in Italy.
  • Focused on woodcuts that can be printed and reproduced.
  • The Four Horsemen from the Apocalypse (Book of Revelation).
• Jan van Eyck (1390-1441)
  • One of the first to use oil paint.
  • Madonna of Chancellor Rolin.
  • The Arnolfini Portrait (showed life of a wealthy family).
• Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569)
  • Liked themes of ordinary people.
  • Humanism.
  • The Beggars.
  • The Peasant Wedding.
• Rembrandt (1606-1669)
  • Realism.
  • Use of light and shadow.
  • The Night Watch.

Religious Concerns

• Problems within the Catholic Church related to societal norms, primogeniture, spending on art patronage, large churches, and clothing.

Reaction to Concerns

• Christian humanists sought "ad fontes" (back to the source), studying early Christians and reading the Bible in Greek and Hebrew.
• Erasmus
  • Praise of Folly: satire about the lack of knowledge among clergy, focusing on money rather than spirituality.
  • Did not want to cause a splintering of the Catholic Church and thought Martin Luther was too harsh.
• Thomas More
  • Utopia: Imaginary land depicting a perfect society.
  • Served in Parliament and as an advisor to King Henry VIII.
  • Achieved Sainthood.

1.4 Printing

• Books in the Middle Ages were expensive, handwritten, decorative, rare, and accessible only to the well-educated, wealthy, and religious.
• Movable Type
  • Printing press (wooden-press).
  • Mass-produced books.
  • Johannes Gutenberg created the Gutenberg Bible in 1456.

Effects of the Printing Press

• More people had access to books and started to read.
• Books written in Vernacular Languages influenced the language of a region.
• Religious Reform: Happened at the same time as Christian Humanists questioned religion.
• Martin Luther
  • Wrote 95 theses and nailed them to the door of the Wittenberg Church, these reforms are more in unit 2.
  • Indulgences were reprinted and distributed around Germany.

1.5 New Monarchies

• Henry VIII (House of Tudor), came to power as king in 1509.
• Married to Catherine of Aragon, who had been married to his brother, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and aunt of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V; they had one daughter, Mary Tudor.

Henry VIII’s Annulment

• No male heir.
• In 1527, wanted to annul his 27-year marriage on grounds she was married to his brother, to which the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor said no.
• Henry divorced Catherine and married Anne Boleyn, who had a girl, Elizabeth.
• Henry denounced the pope, and 3 years later he executed Anne.
• Henry's Other Wives:
  • Jane Seymour - Edward
  • Anne of Cleves
    • Married in a treaty but wanted to change his mind upon meeting her; the marriage was annulled after a few months (1540).
  • Catherine Howard
    • Married Henry in 1540 but beheaded 2 years later (treason); no children.
  • Catherine Parr
    • Married in 1543, outlived him, and had multiple marriages too.

Acts of Supremacy & Treason

• Supremacy made Henry the ruler of the church (Anglican, Church of England).
• Many people stayed loyal to the Catholic Church.
• Treason: Not recognizing King Henry was punishable by death, like Thomas More.

Church of England

• Initially, was the same as the Catholic Church except for unmarried clergy, confessions to a priest, transubstantiation, and good deeds (will be an issue later).
• Other Protestants (will elaborate soon) struggled with this.

British Tudor Royalty

• Henry VII (1485-1509)
• Henry VIII (1509-1547)
• Edward VI (1547-1553)
• Mary I (1553-1558) - Bloody Mary, married to a Spanish Royal
• Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

Elizabeth’s Reforms

• Elizabethan Settlement: Tried to find a compromise between Catholics and Anglicans.
• Act of Uniformity: Religious instruction but avoided criticism of the Pope.
• 39 Articles: English as the official language of the Church of England.
• Puritanism
  • Thought the Church of England should take the opportunity to make real reforms.
  • Predestination.
  • Wanted to “purify” the Church of England, came from Calvinism.

Spain

• Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella united Spain. Centralized power.
  • Collected taxes on property (alcabala).
  • Built a large military.
  • Corregidores: Nobles who helped strengthen their royal power.
  • Inquisition: Targeted Jews and Muslims (Reconquista).

France

• 100 Years War:
  • War with England (1337-1453).
  • Inconsistent fighting made France consolidate power.
• Consolidated Power:
  • Taille (land tax) enforced by bailiffs, used the funds to form a military.
  • Kings conquered city-states.
• Louis XI (1461-1483)
  • Weakened the power of the nobles, strengthening his own power.
• Concordat of Bologna
  • Agreement between Francis I and Pope Leo X (1516).
  • Pope took income from French tithes.
  • King Francis got more power over Catholic leaders in France.
• Edict of Nantes
  • King Henry IV (1598).
  • Calvinist Huguenots could worship freely but will not always be followed

England

• War of the Roses
  • Tudor/Lancaster Family vs. York Family.
  • Tudors won, and the first Tudor king (Henry VII) married Elizabeth of York (parents of Henry VIII).
• Henry VII
  • Did not tax the nobles and middle class very much.
  • Avoided wars, held trials, and created a Royal Council of nobles.
• Court of the Star Chamber
  • Legal court to reprimand nobility but became a way to politically oppress political opponents.

Germany

• City-states breaking from the Holy Roman Empire wanted to exert their own power.
• Luther’s Reformation spread rapidly, and princes were converting to take power from the Holy Roman Emperor.
• Diet of Augsburg - 1530
  • Holy Roman Emperor gave the Protestant princes a deadline to return to the Catholic Church, and in response, they formed the Schmalkaldic League.
• Schmalkaldic League
  • Ignored by Charles V at first, he was afraid the German princes would join the French (they were at war).
  • When the war turned in Charles’ favor, he went after the League - 1547 but was unsuccessful.
• Peace of Augsburg
  • 1555.
  • Individual rulers could choose what religion their people would follow.

Other Changes in Europe

• Influence of the Catholic Church: Patrons of the arts and banking reform.
• Commercial changes and cities led to a new class of wealthy merchants.
• Guilds.
• Wealthy merchants challenged the nobility (gentry).