- These would not stop a reaction from occurring completely because it would require an inhibitor to be in EVERY active site but it can still slow down a reaction

- Non-competitive inhibitors bind to an enzyme on a site called the allosteric Site that then causes the shape of the active site to change

- With an active site that is a different shape, it can't speed up the reaction because the reactants aren't the right they are not permanent and are reversible

-allo means different, so it is a different site to change the active site

- Photosynthesis: The process by which plants, algae, and even some bacteria convert LIGHT energy to chemical energy (GLUCOSE).

- Another name for a plant, algae, and/or bacteria that can photosynthesize is Autotroph (can make its own food)

- Other organisms obtain their chemical energy by consuming other living things and are called heterotrophs

Chloroplasts:

Specialized structures that make photosynthesis possible
Stroma - fluid portion of chloroplasts
Thylakoids - sac-like membranes where photosynthesis takes place
a stack of thylakoids is called a granum
Contain pigments whose job is to absorb sunlight (example:
chlorophyll)

CHLOROPHYLL IS A PIGMENT

Pigments = light capturing structures
Found in the membranes of thylakoids
Most well-known photosynthesis pigment is chlorophyll
look at light absorption spectrum and determine what colors of light chlorophyll absorbs best

Chemical equation:

6CO2+6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2, carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose and oxygen with help of light

Light-dependent reactions

Occurs in thylakoids
Requires light
Produces ATP and
NADPH

Light-independent reactions (Calvin
Cycle)

Occurs in stroma
Does not require water
Uses ATP and NADPH to do functions

Light dependent reactions follow these steps:

Light hits a photosystem and excites electrons
The electron follows the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) to the second photosystem
The other electron that was in the second photosystem follows another ETC to NADP+ creating NADPH
While that happens, hydrogens travel from the outside to the inside of the thylakoid membrane
They come back up through ATP Synthase, spinning it and creating ATP
To recycle, Water is broken apart for the electron, the hydrogen joins the others and oxygen becomes a byproduct

Light Dependent reactions (Calvin Cycle) works as follows:

Carbon Fixation
- 3 molecules of CO2 join to RuBP (5 carbon sugar) by rubisco
Reduction
- The 6 carbon compound is split into two 3 carbon molecules because it was unstable at the beginning
- They split and reform using energy from ATP and NADPH from the light dependent reactions
- The six 3 carbon molecules are known as G3P
- There is a net gain of three carbons, which form one half of a glucose molecule
  - Once the process is done TWICE, then one full glucose will be formed when they connect
Regeneration
- Using ATP, (Making it ADP and a phosphate) The remaining 5 G3P molecules are rearranged to create RuBP

BROAD OVERVIEW OF THE ENTIRE PROCESS PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

The Light Reactions (Phase 1) capture the energy in sunlight and convert it to chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH through the use of photosystems, electron transport chains, and ATP
Synthase
The Calvin Cycle (Phase 2) uses the energy transformed by the light reactions along with carbon dioxide to produce glucose.

DEFINITION OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

The controlled release of energy from food (commonly glucose) in the presence of Oxygen.
The chemical reaction of cellular respiration is the REVERSE of photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis are said to be COUPLED
What one produces the other needs
C6H12O6+602 —> 6CO2+6H2O+Sunlight (opposite of photosynthesis equation)

Happens in four steps

Glycolysis
Pyruvate Conversion
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
Electron Transport Train/ATP Synthesis

MOST OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION HAPPENS IN MITOCHONDRIA

Outer Membrane
Inner membrane
Space between membranes is called intermembrane space
Matrix = Fluid of mitochondria
Cristae = folds of inner membrane

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

STEP 1:

Glycolysis
Glyco-= glucose
-lysis = to break

Happens in CYTOPLASM of cell
Glucose → 2 pyruvate molecules
Investment - spend 2 ATP
Payoff - produce 4 ATP

OVERALL = +2 ATP
Also creates electron carriers called NADH

PYRUVATE CONVERSION

STEP 2:

• This process occurs in the intermembrane space of

occurs when oxygen is available

2 pyruvate → 2 acetyl coA molecules
Molecules produced in this step - carbon dioxide, NADH, and acetyl coA

KREBS CYCLE/CITRIC ACID CYCLE

STEP 3:

Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria and only occurs when oxygen is
The final breakdown of what is left from what was glucose

• Products formed = carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2 and 2 ATP

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN/ATP SYNTHESIS

The electron transport chain (ETC) is located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria and its main purpose is to produce energy in the form of ATP.

Step 1: Electron Donation

NADH and FADH₂, which are made during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, donate their electrons to the ETC. When they do this, NADH becomes NAD⁺ and FADH₂ becomes FAD.

Step 2: Electron Flow

The donated electrons move through a series of protein complexes in the ETC. This movement releases energy, which is used to pump hydrogen ions (H⁺) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, creating a concentration gradient.

Step 3: ATP Production

The hydrogen ions then flow back into the matrix through a protein called ATP synthase. This flow provides the energy needed to convert ADP into ATP.

Step 4: Water Formation

At the end of the chain, electrons combine with oxygen (the final electron acceptor) and hydrogen ions to form water (H₂O).

Final Products

From the ETC, around 34 ATP molecules and water are produced. The carriers, NAD⁺ and FAD, are recycled to be used again in earlier steps of cellular respiration.

FERMENTATION

What if oxygen isn't available for cellular respiration?

Step 1 (Glycolysis) of Cellular

Respiration will always occur in the cytoplasm WITH or WITHOUT oxygen.

Pyruvate conversion, Krebs Cycle, and ETC & ATP Synthesis will not be able to occur.
A process called fermentation will occur to allow only a small amount of ATP to be produced

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Typically occurs in animals and some bacteria

This is the type of fermentation that humans do when cells have limited or no oxygen available
Example: muscle cells during intense exercise
This type of fermentation is also responsible for yogurt, cheese, and pickles

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION