Restoration of Monarchy and the Establishment of the Second French Republic
The conversation begins by questioning the efficacy of the restoration of the monarchy. It suggests that perhaps establishing a republic was a more favorable course of action, leading to the formation of the Second French Republic in 1848.
Abolishment of Monarchical Structures
With the establishment of this new republic came several predictable outcomes:
Abolishment of the monarchy.
Abolishment of the nobility.
Establishment of citizen sovereignty and the nation’s foundational rights.
Enactment of a new constitution.
Key Players in the New Republic
The new constitution of 1848 coincides with the election of Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. Key points about Louis Napoleon include:
Name Recognition: He carried a famous family name, aiding his political ascent despite lacking substantial political experience.
Electoral Promises: He made promises aimed at the working class and lower class citizens, securing their votes in the wake of the revolutions of 1833 and 1848, which had seen repeated failures of old political structures.
Constitutional Advances in 1848
The changes brought forth by the 1848 constitution were monumental for their time and included:
Universal Male Suffrage: This allowed all men in France, including its colonies, to vote.
Abolition of Slavery: A significant reform addressing human rights.
Abolition of the Death Penalty: Ending capital punishment showcased a shift in moral and legal standards.
Conflicts and Class Divisions
As rights began to expand for the populace, concerns from the wealthy classes resurfaced.
Emergence of Factions: The government, composed mainly of the bourgeoisie and middle class, began to align moderate liberals with conservatives. Their shared concern was the potential loss of wealth and power as more rights were granted to the working class.
Radical vs. Moderate Socialism: The tensions between socialist factions became evident. Moderate socialists, like those supported by Louis Napoleon, did not align with the more radical socialists whose demands exceeded simple reforms.
Class Tensions: Working-class citizens allied more closely with radical socialists, emphasizing the class struggles of the time.
Louis Napoleon's Power Consolidation
While various factions were fighting for reform, Louis Napoleon slowly centralized power:
Coup of 1851: He leads a coup in 1851, overthrowing the republic he had previously been elected to lead, declaring himself Emperor Napoleon III, marking the shift from a republic back to an empire.
Autocratic Rule: From 1852 until 1870, he ruled as a military dictator, shifting away from the republican ideals previously espoused.
Nationalism Emergence
The discussion transitions towards the theme of nationalism, noting how nationalism began influencing various nations throughout the 19th century.
Examination of Cases: Italy and Germany
Presentations on the unification of Italy and Germany provide historical context to rising nationalist movements in Europe during the 19th century.
Italy
Lack of National Identity (Pre-1860s): Before the 1860s, Italy divided into numerous city-states without a unified Italian identity.
These included the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, the Republics of Venice and Florence, and various duchies.
Emergence of Nationalist Groups: Groups like the Carbonari promoted the idea of a united Italian state, drawing on a shared history and culture.
Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy: Mazzini promoted nationalist sentiments among the young, advocating for a renewed Italian identity derived from a romanticized past of the Roman Empire.
Count Cavour and Unification Attempts: Count Cavour utilized liberal principles to bring alongside support from the king of Sardinia, Vittorio Emmanuel II, in unifying the Italian states.
Giuseppe Garibaldi's Role: An unauthorized military venture by Garibaldi led to the control of Naples and Sicily, further solidifying territorial control under Sardinian rule.
Formation of the Kingdom of Italy (1861): Italy becomes a unified nation primarily through Sardinian leadership, but the challenge remains in unifying diverse populations under one national identity, evident in Massimo d'Azeglio's quote: "we have made Italy, but we must make Italians."
Germany
Historical Context (Pre-1860s): Similar to Italy, Germany lacked unified governance directly following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 and attempts at confederation leading to divided allegiances.
Rise of Otto von Bismarck: Appointed Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862, he aimed to unify Germany through militaristic nationalism, famously stating that it would be achieved through "blood and iron."
Silesian Wars and Austro-Prussian War: Military victories against Denmark and Austria solidified Prussian dominance, leading to the formation of the Northern German Confederation.
Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): Bismarck incited war against France, successfully rallying German states against a shared enemy. The swift victory led to widespread support for a unified German empire.
Establishment of the German Empire (1871): Following the war, Bismarck crowned Kaiser Wilhelm I as the Emperor of Germany, establishing the German Empire, which sought to expand its territories similarly to other European powers.
Nationalism in Russia
The focus shifts to Russian nationalism and imperial dynamics.
Diverse Empire: By the 19th century, Russia controlled a vast composite empire that included Ukraine, parts of Poland, and Baltic states but struggled with internal reforms.
Weaknesses of Tsar Nicholas I: Lack of industrialization hindered Russian military power and prompted uprisings, such as the Decemberist revolt of 1825, which sought liberal reform.
Crimean War (1854-1856): The humiliating defeat in the Crimean War exposed Russia’s backwardness and led to attempts for reform.
Reforms by Alexander II: He initiated liberal reforms, ending serfdom and establishing limited representative bodies, which were ultimately met with resistance and assassination.
Russification Policies under Alexander III: Following Alexander II's assassination, Alexander III implemented policies enforcing Russian cultural and linguistic identity upon the empire's diverse populations, emphasizing militarization and state control.
Conclusion
The detailed examination of these historical developments illustrates the complexities of national identity formation and the interplay of classes and political power. The shifts from monarchy to republics and the rise of nationalism across Europe by the late 19th century showcased the struggles and ambitions dictated by class and ambition, influencing contemporary political landscapes.