2.2 Thinking, Problem-solving, Judgement, and decision-making-100%

Cognition
Definition: The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and senses.
Example: Solving a math problem or planning a trip.

Nudge
Definition: A subtle change in the environment that influences behavior and decision-making without restricting options.
Example: Placing healthy snacks at eye level in a cafeteria to encourage healthier eating.

Metacognition
Definition: Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes; thinking about thinking.
Example: Recognizing when you don’t understand a concept and deciding to review it.

Gambler's Fallacy
Definition: The belief that past events affect the probabilities of future independent events.
Example: Thinking a coin is "due" to land on heads after several tails.

Concept
Definition: A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Example: The concept of "dog" includes various breeds and sizes.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy
Definition: The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.
Example: Continuing to watch a movie you dislike because you paid for the ticket.

Prototype
Definition: A mental image or best example of a category that helps in categorization.
Example: A typical bird (like a sparrow) as a prototype of the category "bird."

Functional Fixedness
Definition: The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, hindering problem-solving.
Example: Not using a screwdriver as a lever because you only see it as a tool for driving screws.

Schema
Definition: A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information.
Example: A "restaurant" schema includes expectations about menus, ordering, and dining.

Insight
Definition: A sudden realization of a problem's solution, often occurring after a period of contemplation.
Example: Suddenly figuring out how to rearrange furniture to fit better in a room.

Assimilation
Definition: The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas.
Example: Seeing a zebra for the first time and calling it a "horse."

Confirmation Bias
Definition: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.
Example: Only reading news articles that support your political views.

Accommodation
Definition: The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.
Example: Learning that a zebra is not a horse and creating a new category for "zebra."

Executive Functions
Definition: Cognitive processes that enable goal-directed behavior, including working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control.
Example: Planning a project and managing time effectively.

Fixation
Definition: The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, often due to mental set.
Example: Struggling to solve a puzzle because you are stuck on one approach.

Algorithm
Definition: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem that guarantees a solution.
Example: A mathematical formula for calculating the area of a rectangle.

Intuition
Definition: The ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.
Example: Knowing which candidate to vote for based on a gut feeling.

Heuristic
Definition: A mental shortcut that allows for quick decision-making and problem-solving but does not guarantee the right answer.
Example: Estimating the number of jellybeans in a jar by looking at the size of the jar.

Overconfidence
Definition: A cognitive bias where a person’s subjective confidence in their judgments is greater than the objective accuracy.
Example: A student feeling overly confident about passing an exam without studying.

Representativeness Heuristic
Definition: A cognitive bias where people judge the probability of an event based on how much it resembles a typical case.
Example: Assuming someone is a librarian because they are shy and wear glasses.

Belief Perseverance
Definition: The tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even in the face of contrary evidence.
Example: Continuing to believe in a debunked theory despite evidence against it.

Availability Heuristic
Definition: A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic or decision.
Example: Overestimating the likelihood of plane crashes after seeing news reports of one.

Creativity
Definition: The ability to produce new and valuable ideas or solutions.
Example: Inventing a new product or coming up with a unique solution to a problem.

Mental Set
Definition: A tendency to approach problems in a particular way based on past experiences.
Example: Using the same method to solve a math problem even when it’s not applicable.

Divergent Thinking
Definition: A type of thinking that generates multiple solutions to a problem.
Example: Brainstorming various uses for a paperclip.

Priming
Definition: The activation of certain associations in memory, influencing perceptions and responses.
Example: Hearing the word "yellow" may make you think of "banana" more quickly.

Framing
Definition: The way information is presented, which can significantly affect decision-making and judgments.
Example: Describing a surgery as having a "90% success rate" versus a "10% failure rate."

Convergent Thinking
Definition: A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single best solution to a problem.
Example: Solving a math equation that has a specific answer.

• Heuristics do not guarantee a solution and are more error-prone than algorithms.