Ornithology Notes

Migration

• Migration

  • 15 km diameter

  • 70,000 km/hr

• Dino-Killer Impact

  • The impactor that may have wiped out the dinosaurs, as well as 70% of the other species on Earth, was a very small thing compared to Earth itself.

  • It didn't need to be large: beyond the initial impact, the debris thrown in to the atmosphere could have created global effects that collapsed the food chain.

• Migration Distances

  • 3,000 to 5,000 km

  • Decline of 50%

• Cuckoo Migration

  • The migration routes of five British cuckoos: Lyster, Chris, Clement, Martin, Kasper.

• Wheatear Migration

  • 15,000 km (approx. 300 km per day)

  • Pointy wings, forked tail

  • Epic migration of a songbird

  • Biologists tracked the migration of the tiny northern wheatear using minute tagging devices.

  • North Atlantic route:

    • Baffin Island (Breeding ground) to Britain to Mauritania (Wintering) - 15,000 km round trip

  • Siberian route:

    • Alaska/Siberia (Breeding ground) to Sudan/Arabian desert/Kenya (Wintering) - 29,000 km round trip

  • Northern Wheatear

    • Oenanthe oenanthe

    • Weight: 25 g

    • Conservation status: Least concern (IUCN)

    • Estimated population: 20-100 million

• Great Snipe Migration

  • 6,760 km in 3.5 days

  • Approx 2,000 km per day, approx 80 km per hour (22 m/s)

• Bar-tailed Godwit Migration

  • May 1: went east to western Alaska, 7,200 km in 5 days

  • E7: left NZ March 17, arrived China 10,000 km in 8 days

  • August 29: left for NZ, arrived 8 miles from her capture site, 11,500 km in >8 days (av. 16 m/s)

  • 7 months round trip of >29,000 km

• Red Knot Muscle Variation

  • Variation in body mass and pectoral muscle thickness, as measured by ultrasound, of three red knots during a period of partial fasting and during subsequent refuelling (regain of weight).

  • Changes in pectoral muscle thickness, as measured by ultrasound, of four birds flying for 10h in a wind tunnel.

• Pre-migration Proteins

  • Proteins increase during re-fuelling and pre-migratory fattening. E.g. Red knot (Calidris canutus) 40%

• Metabolic Fuel

  • Energy density of carbohydrate (glycogen): 4.4 kJ g^{-1} (75% water). Can be used anaerobically, so good for relatively short or burst flights.

  • Once glycogen stores are depleted, the only other source of carbohydrate is via protein degradation and gluconeogenesis in the liver.

  • Energy density of protein: 5.4 kJ g^{-1} (70% water)

  • Energy density of lipid: 39.3 kJ g^{-1} (very little water).

• Birds of Paradise

  • Blue bird of Paradise, Wilson’s bird of Paradise, Black Sicklebill bird of Paradise, Standard wing bird of Paradise, 12-wired bird of Paradise, Superb bird of Paradise

• Avian Diversity

  • Mosaic evolution produces an evolutionary mosaic: avian diversity encompasses a spectacular variety of cranial forms.

  • BIRD ‘Radiation’ – 7 cranial modules

• Bird Orders (Traditional Taxonomy)

  • Scaly feet, Perching, Swift, Ducks & Gulls {Pelicaniforms}, Raptors, Grebes, Hornbills & Kingfishers, Woodpeckers, Trogons, Waders & Grouse

• Bird Classification (Traditional Taxonomy)

  • NEORNITHES (sub-class):

    • Infra-class: Palaeognathae (“Ratites”): Tinamiformes, Rheiformes, Casuariiformes, Apterygiformes, Struthioniformes

    • Infra-class: Neognathae: Galliformes, Anseriformes, Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Sphenisciformes, Procellariiformes, Balaenicipitiformes, Ciconiiformes, Ardeiformes, Gruiformes, Turniciformes, Ralliformes, Charadriiformes, Falconiformes, Strigiformes, Opisthocomiformes, Cuculiformes, Psittaciformes, Columbiformes, Caprimulgiformes, Apodiformes, Coliiformes, Pelecaniformes, Trogoniformes, Coraciiformes, Piciformes, Passeriformes

    • 32 Orders (Livezey & Zusi Zool. J. Linn. Zoc. 2007)

    • Traditional Taxonomy: 28 Orders

• Molecular Taxonomy

  • 3’ Untranslated regions of RNA (3’ UTRs) phylogeny of extant “true birds”.

  • Approx 37 Orders - Kuhl et al. Mol. Biol. Evol. (2020) 38, 108-127

  • Infraclass RNA molecular Taxonomy 35 Orders

• Phylogeny of Extant Birds

  • 3’ Untranslated regions of RNA (3’ UTRs) phylogeny of extant “true birds”.

  • Approx 37 Orders - Kuhl et al. Mol. Biol. Evol. (2020) 38, 108-127

  • 35 Orders

  • Examples of Orders:

    • Hoatzin, Nightjars, swift, hum, Bustards, Touracos, Cuckoos, Pigeons, Game birds - pheasant, Waterfowl – geese, Ratites, Tinamou, Palaeognathae

• PALAEOGNATHAE

  • The Ratites and relatives

    • Emu + Cassowary (Au, 4 spp): Long inner toenail, Polyandrous

    • Kiwi (N.Z., 3 spp): 65% yolk monogamous

    • Rhea (S.Am., 2spp): Males incubate

    • Ostrich (Africa, 1 spp): Females incubate at night

    • Tinamou (S. Am., 47 spp): Males incubate

  • Apterygiformes, Casuariiformes, Struthioniformes, Rheiformes, Tinamiformes

• Phylogeny

  • Tinamous are not basal or outliers!

  • Cladogram showing relationships between:

    • Struthionidae (ostriches) (Africa)

    • Apterygidae (kiwi) (New Zealand)

    • Tinamiformes (tinamou)

    • Rheidae (rheas) (South America)

    • Casuariinae (cassowaries) (Australia)

    • Dromaiinae (emus) (Australia)

    • Aepyornithidae (elephant birds) (Madagascar)

    • Dinornithiformes (moa) (New Zealand)

• Phylogeny of Birds

  • A family-level phylogeny of birds based on 3′-UTR sequences including all (106) nonpasserine (A) and most … Mol Biol Evol, Volume 38, Issue 1, January 2021, Pages 108–127, https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa191

• Ratites and Relatives

  • Tinamou (S. Am., 47 spp)

    • 45 mya from Australia

    • Unique palate bones

  • African and S. Am. Ratites around 57 mya from Flying ancestor?

  • Gondwanaland split – flew over water?

  • Males incubate

  • No Crop

  • Fused wing bones

  • Broken wing display (O & E)

  • Pygostyle

  • Mammalian competition selected for increased body size and fast running?

  • Tinamiformes 66 mya

• Phylogeny of Extant Birds (cont.)

  • Parrots, Seriemas – 2 spp., Falcons, Owls, Pelicans, cormorants, Hawks, vultures, Gannet, Boobies, Tropic birds, Penguins, Petrels, Hornbills, Woodpeckers, Toucans, Kingfishers, Rollers

• Hoatzin Placement

  • Hoatzin?, Nightjars, swift, hum, Bustards, Touracos?, Cuckoos, Pigeons, Game birds - pheasant, Waterfowl – geese, Ratites, Tinamou, Palaeognathae

• Cuckoos (Cuculiformes)

  • Zygodactyl feet

  • Very diverse (European cuckoo, tropical groups)

  • 57 species in 2 subfamilies are parasitic on warblers to crows.

  • Ani, Roadrunner

• Cuckoo Characteristics

  • Cuculinae

  • European cuckoo takes 10 secs to deposit egg after watching for days.

  • Mimics host egg, and gape and calls.

  • Short incubation (fastest of 11 days!)

  • Reed and sedge warblers and Dunnocks.

  • Ejects host eggs (Edward Jenner 1788 – smallpox vaccination from Variolae vaccinae).

  • Dunnock

• Cuckoo Behavior

  • Induces equivalent feeding rates of 3 to 4 host young.

  • Can induce feeding even after leaving nest.

  • Lay between 12 and 25 eggs per year.

• Hoatzin and Turacos

  • Birds such as the peculiar Hoatzin of South America and the Turacos of Africa were thought to be related, and both closely related to the cuckoos (Cuculiformes).

  • Musophagiformes, Opisthocomiformes

• Turacos (Musophagiformes)

  • DNA places the Turacos in their own Order (Musophagiformes).

  • Unique because it has a green pigment called Turacoverdin and a red pigment called Turacin.

  • Are they sister group to Bustards (Otidiformes) [or Cuckoos (Cuculiformes]!

• Hoatzin (Opisthocomiformes)

  • Very old extant bird lineage – around 64 mya.

  • Morphological and DNA classification puts Hoatzin in separate order, Opisthocomiformes.

  • Hoatzin has large muscular crop & is an obligate folivore.

  • Foregut fermenter.

  • [sister to Caprimulgiformes]

• Hoatzin Characteristics

  • Opisthocomiformes

  • Foregut 25% of Mb

  • Food retained for 1 to 2 days

  • Helpers at the nest

  • Liquid diet with microbes

  • Juvenile wing claws (digits 1, 2 & 3 – Towers et al. 2011 Nature Comms 2:426).

• Caprimulgiformes and Apodiformes

  • Eared nightjar, Nightjar, Nighthawk, Oilbird, Potoo, Frogmouth, Owlet-nightjar, Treeswift, Swift, Needletail swift, Topaz hummingbird, Hermit hummingbird, hummingbird, Owlet-nightjar

  • ‘Swiftlet-hummer’?

• Nightjars (Caprimulgiformes?)

  • Are crepuscular to night-time feeders

  • Large eyes and visual predators

  • Only avian hibernator

• Nightjar Behavior

  • Lunar cycle - Usually only feed at dawn and dusk (around 1 hour) but during full moon will feed during middle of night

  • Lunar cycle - Whip poorwill tends to lay eggs around full moon. Helps with egg development but also chick rearing and then fledging.

• Oilbirds (Steatornis caripensis) Steatornithidae

  • Most sensitive eyes in bird world

  • Named by Alexander von Humboldt (1799)

  • Light gathering power of f=1.07, with 9mm diameter pupil on only a 16mm deep eye.

  • Small rods (1.3 μm) in unique 3 tier design

  • 1,000,000 rods per mm2 (highest in vertebrates)

  • Sensitive but poor colour vision.

  • Therefore, echolocation (1,000 to 15,000 Hz) can detect large objects/walls (>20 cm) and olfaction important.

• Oilbird Diet

  • Eats palm nuts and figs by hawking (hovering).

  • Stays out in forest for days (every 3rd day in cave).

• Strisores

  • Original Apodiformes?

  • Cladogram including:

    • Eared nightjar (Eurostopodus), Nightjar (Caprimulgus), Nighthawk (Chordeiles), Oilbird (Steatornis), Potoo (Nyctibius), Frogmouth (Podargus), Owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles), Treeswift (Hemiprocne), Swift (Streptoprocne), Needletail swift (Chaetura), Topaz hummingbird (Topaza), Hermit hummingbird (Phaethornis), hummingbird (Archilochus)

• Apodiformes

  • The traditional order Apodiformes (“no legs”) included the swifts and the hummingbirds together.

  • The molecular classification agrees.

  • Swift most aerial bird in the world!

• Hummingbirds Trochilidae

  • 328 spp, 108 genera

  • Important plant pollinators

  • Trochilines (90%) and Topaz and Hermits

  • Hermits use male leks and Heliconia flowers

  • Specialist hovers – some migrate!

• Hummingbird Flight

  • Wings give lift on upstroke.

  • Wingbeats between 15 and 80 Hz (200 Hz)

  • Breathing rates of 300 to 500 bpm.

  • Smallest – bee hummingbird (2.0 g).

  • Largest – Patagona gigas (20 g).

• Hummingbird Metabolism

  • 50% of its body mass in nectar per day

  • Need dilute urine and 10% salt intake per day

  • Commonly use torpor (Tb around 18°C)

  • Aggressive and resource territorial

  • Serially polygamous

  • Have 2 fovea in the eyes for better speed and distance judgement.

• Hummingbird Reproduction

  • Female does all the work!

  • Lay 2 eggs

  • Hatch blind and almost naked.

  • Long nestling period (23 to 40 days depending on altitude).

  • Can fly even in rain!

  • Head can shake at 34 g (333 m s^{-2}) & Dive at 9 g.