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Ornithology Notes

Migration

  • Migration

    • 15 km diameter

    • 70,000 km/hr

  • Dino-Killer Impact

    • The impactor that may have wiped out the dinosaurs, as well as 70% of the other species on Earth, was a very small thing compared to Earth itself.

    • It didn't need to be large: beyond the initial impact, the debris thrown in to the atmosphere could have created global effects that collapsed the food chain.

  • Migration Distances

    • 3,000 to 5,000 km

    • Decline of 50%

  • Cuckoo Migration

    • The migration routes of five British cuckoos: Lyster, Chris, Clement, Martin, Kasper.

  • Wheatear Migration

    • 15,000 km (approx. 300 km per day)

    • Pointy wings, forked tail

    • Epic migration of a songbird

    • Biologists tracked the migration of the tiny northern wheatear using minute tagging devices.

    • North Atlantic route:

      • Baffin Island (Breeding ground) to Britain to Mauritania (Wintering) - 15,000 km round trip

    • Siberian route:

      • Alaska/Siberia (Breeding ground) to Sudan/Arabian desert/Kenya (Wintering) - 29,000 km round trip

    • Northern Wheatear

      • Oenanthe oenanthe

      • Weight: 25 g

      • Conservation status: Least concern (IUCN)

      • Estimated population: 20-100 million

  • Great Snipe Migration

    • 6,760 km in 3.5 days

    • Approx 2,000 km per day, approx 80 km per hour (22 m/s)

  • Bar-tailed Godwit Migration

    • May 1: went east to western Alaska, 7,200 km in 5 days

    • E7: left NZ March 17, arrived China 10,000 km in 8 days

    • August 29: left for NZ, arrived 8 miles from her capture site, 11,500 km in >8 days (av. 16 m/s)

    • 7 months round trip of >29,000 km

  • Red Knot Muscle Variation

    • Variation in body mass and pectoral muscle thickness, as measured by ultrasound, of three red knots during a period of partial fasting and during subsequent refuelling (regain of weight).

    • Changes in pectoral muscle thickness, as measured by ultrasound, of four birds flying for 10h in a wind tunnel.

  • Pre-migration Proteins

    • Proteins increase during re-fuelling and pre-migratory fattening. E.g. Red knot (Calidris canutus) 40%

  • Metabolic Fuel

    • Energy density of carbohydrate (glycogen): 4.4 kJ g^{-1} (75% water). Can be used anaerobically, so good for relatively short or burst flights.

    • Once glycogen stores are depleted, the only other source of carbohydrate is via protein degradation and gluconeogenesis in the liver.

    • Energy density of protein: 5.4 kJ g^{-1} (70% water)

    • Energy density of lipid: 39.3 kJ g^{-1} (very little water).

  • Birds of Paradise

    • Blue bird of Paradise, Wilson’s bird of Paradise, Black Sicklebill bird of Paradise, Standard wing bird of Paradise, 12-wired bird of Paradise, Superb bird of Paradise

  • Avian Diversity

    • Mosaic evolution produces an evolutionary mosaic: avian diversity encompasses a spectacular variety of cranial forms.

    • BIRD ‘Radiation’ – 7 cranial modules

  • Bird Orders (Traditional Taxonomy)

    • Scaly feet, Perching, Swift, Ducks & Gulls {Pelicaniforms}, Raptors, Grebes, Hornbills & Kingfishers, Woodpeckers, Trogons, Waders & Grouse

  • Bird Classification (Traditional Taxonomy)

    • NEORNITHES (sub-class):

      • Infra-class: Palaeognathae (“Ratites”): Tinamiformes, Rheiformes, Casuariiformes, Apterygiformes, Struthioniformes

      • Infra-class: Neognathae: Galliformes, Anseriformes, Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Sphenisciformes, Procellariiformes, Balaenicipitiformes, Ciconiiformes, Ardeiformes, Gruiformes, Turniciformes, Ralliformes, Charadriiformes, Falconiformes, Strigiformes, Opisthocomiformes, Cuculiformes, Psittaciformes, Columbiformes, Caprimulgiformes, Apodiformes, Coliiformes, Pelecaniformes, Trogoniformes, Coraciiformes, Piciformes, Passeriformes

      • 32 Orders (Livezey & Zusi Zool. J. Linn. Zoc. 2007)

      • Traditional Taxonomy: 28 Orders

  • Molecular Taxonomy

    • 3’ Untranslated regions of RNA (3’ UTRs) phylogeny of extant “true birds”.

    • Approx 37 Orders - Kuhl et al. Mol. Biol. Evol. (2020) 38, 108-127

    • Infraclass RNA molecular Taxonomy 35 Orders

  • Phylogeny of Extant Birds

    • 3’ Untranslated regions of RNA (3’ UTRs) phylogeny of extant “true birds”.

    • Approx 37 Orders - Kuhl et al. Mol. Biol. Evol. (2020) 38, 108-127

    • 35 Orders

    • Examples of Orders:

      • Hoatzin, Nightjars, swift, hum, Bustards, Touracos, Cuckoos, Pigeons, Game birds - pheasant, Waterfowl – geese, Ratites, Tinamou, Palaeognathae

  • PALAEOGNATHAE

    • The Ratites and relatives

      • Emu + Cassowary (Au, 4 spp): Long inner toenail, Polyandrous

      • Kiwi (N.Z., 3 spp): 65% yolk monogamous

      • Rhea (S.Am., 2spp): Males incubate

      • Ostrich (Africa, 1 spp): Females incubate at night

      • Tinamou (S. Am., 47 spp): Males incubate

    • Apterygiformes, Casuariiformes, Struthioniformes, Rheiformes, Tinamiformes

  • Phylogeny

    • Tinamous are not basal or outliers!

    • Cladogram showing relationships between:

      • Struthionidae (ostriches) (Africa)

      • Apterygidae (kiwi) (New Zealand)

      • Tinamiformes (tinamou)

      • Rheidae (rheas) (South America)

      • Casuariinae (cassowaries) (Australia)

      • Dromaiinae (emus) (Australia)

      • Aepyornithidae (elephant birds) (Madagascar)

      • Dinornithiformes (moa) (New Zealand)

  • Phylogeny of Birds

    • A family-level phylogeny of birds based on 3′-UTR sequences including all (106) nonpasserine (A) and most … Mol Biol Evol, Volume 38, Issue 1, January 2021, Pages 108–127, https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa191

  • Ratites and Relatives

    • Tinamou (S. Am., 47 spp)

      • 45 mya from Australia

      • Unique palate bones

    • African and S. Am. Ratites around 57 mya from Flying ancestor?

    • Gondwanaland split – flew over water?

    • Males incubate

    • No Crop

    • Fused wing bones

    • Broken wing display (O & E)

    • Pygostyle

    • Mammalian competition selected for increased body size and fast running?

    • Tinamiformes 66 mya

  • Phylogeny of Extant Birds (cont.)

    • Parrots, Seriemas – 2 spp., Falcons, Owls, Pelicans, cormorants, Hawks, vultures, Gannet, Boobies, Tropic birds, Penguins, Petrels, Hornbills, Woodpeckers, Toucans, Kingfishers, Rollers

  • Hoatzin Placement

    • Hoatzin?, Nightjars, swift, hum, Bustards, Touracos?, Cuckoos, Pigeons, Game birds - pheasant, Waterfowl – geese, Ratites, Tinamou, Palaeognathae

  • Cuckoos (Cuculiformes)

    • Zygodactyl feet

    • Very diverse (European cuckoo, tropical groups)

    • 57 species in 2 subfamilies are parasitic on warblers to crows.

    • Ani, Roadrunner

  • Cuckoo Characteristics

    • Cuculinae

    • European cuckoo takes 10 secs to deposit egg after watching for days.

    • Mimics host egg, and gape and calls.

    • Short incubation (fastest of 11 days!)

    • Reed and sedge warblers and Dunnocks.

    • Ejects host eggs (Edward Jenner 1788 – smallpox vaccination from Variolae vaccinae).

    • Dunnock

  • Cuckoo Behavior

    • Induces equivalent feeding rates of 3 to 4 host young.

    • Can induce feeding even after leaving nest.

    • Lay between 12 and 25 eggs per year.

  • Hoatzin and Turacos

    • Birds such as the peculiar Hoatzin of South America and the Turacos of Africa were thought to be related, and both closely related to the cuckoos (Cuculiformes).

    • Musophagiformes, Opisthocomiformes

  • Turacos (Musophagiformes)

    • DNA places the Turacos in their own Order (Musophagiformes).

    • Unique because it has a green pigment called Turacoverdin and a red pigment called Turacin.

    • Are they sister group to Bustards (Otidiformes) [or Cuckoos (Cuculiformes]!

  • Hoatzin (Opisthocomiformes)

    • Very old extant bird lineage – around 64 mya.

    • Morphological and DNA classification puts Hoatzin in separate order, Opisthocomiformes.

    • Hoatzin has large muscular crop & is an obligate folivore.

    • Foregut fermenter.

    • [sister to Caprimulgiformes]

  • Hoatzin Characteristics

    • Opisthocomiformes

    • Foregut 25% of Mb

    • Food retained for 1 to 2 days

    • Helpers at the nest

    • Liquid diet with microbes

    • Juvenile wing claws (digits 1, 2 & 3 – Towers et al. 2011 Nature Comms 2:426).

  • Caprimulgiformes and Apodiformes

    • Eared nightjar, Nightjar, Nighthawk, Oilbird, Potoo, Frogmouth, Owlet-nightjar, Treeswift, Swift, Needletail swift, Topaz hummingbird, Hermit hummingbird, hummingbird, Owlet-nightjar

    • ‘Swiftlet-hummer’?

  • Nightjars (Caprimulgiformes?)

    • Are crepuscular to night-time feeders

    • Large eyes and visual predators

    • Only avian hibernator

  • Nightjar Behavior

    • Lunar cycle - Usually only feed at dawn and dusk (around 1 hour) but during full moon will feed during middle of night

    • Lunar cycle - Whip poorwill tends to lay eggs around full moon. Helps with egg development but also chick rearing and then fledging.

  • Oilbirds (Steatornis caripensis) Steatornithidae

    • Most sensitive eyes in bird world

    • Named by Alexander von Humboldt (1799)

    • Light gathering power of f=1.07, with 9mm diameter pupil on only a 16mm deep eye.

    • Small rods (1.3 μm) in unique 3 tier design

    • 1,000,000 rods per mm2 (highest in vertebrates)

    • Sensitive but poor colour vision.

    • Therefore, echolocation (1,000 to 15,000 Hz) can detect large objects/walls (>20 cm) and olfaction important.

  • Oilbird Diet

    • Eats palm nuts and figs by hawking (hovering).

    • Stays out in forest for days (every 3rd day in cave).

  • Strisores

    • Original Apodiformes?

    • Cladogram including:

      • Eared nightjar (Eurostopodus), Nightjar (Caprimulgus), Nighthawk (Chordeiles), Oilbird (Steatornis), Potoo (Nyctibius), Frogmouth (Podargus), Owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles), Treeswift (Hemiprocne), Swift (Streptoprocne), Needletail swift (Chaetura), Topaz hummingbird (Topaza), Hermit hummingbird (Phaethornis), hummingbird (Archilochus)

  • Apodiformes

    • The traditional order Apodiformes (“no legs”) included the swifts and the hummingbirds together.

    • The molecular classification agrees.

    • Swift most aerial bird in the world!

  • Hummingbirds Trochilidae

    • 328 spp, 108 genera

    • Important plant pollinators

    • Trochilines (90%) and Topaz and Hermits

    • Hermits use male leks and Heliconia flowers

    • Specialist hovers – some migrate!

  • Hummingbird Flight

    • Wings give lift on upstroke.

    • Wingbeats between 15 and 80 Hz (200 Hz)

    • Breathing rates of 300 to 500 bpm.

    • Smallest – bee hummingbird (2.0 g).

    • Largest – Patagona gigas (20 g).

  • Hummingbird Metabolism

    • 50% of its body mass in nectar per day

    • Need dilute urine and 10% salt intake per day

    • Commonly use torpor (Tb around 18°C)

    • Aggressive and resource territorial

    • Serially polygamous

    • Have 2 fovea in the eyes for better speed and distance judgement.

  • Hummingbird Reproduction

    • Female does all the work!

    • Lay 2 eggs

    • Hatch blind and almost naked.

    • Long nestling period (23 to 40 days depending on altitude).

    • Can fly even in rain!

    • Head can shake at 34 g (333 m s^{-2}) & Dive at 9 g.