Migration
15 km diameter
70,000 km/hr
Dino-Killer Impact
The impactor that may have wiped out the dinosaurs, as well as 70% of the other species on Earth, was a very small thing compared to Earth itself.
It didn't need to be large: beyond the initial impact, the debris thrown in to the atmosphere could have created global effects that collapsed the food chain.
Migration Distances
3,000 to 5,000 km
Decline of 50%
Cuckoo Migration
The migration routes of five British cuckoos: Lyster, Chris, Clement, Martin, Kasper.
Wheatear Migration
15,000 km (approx. 300 km per day)
Pointy wings, forked tail
Epic migration of a songbird
Biologists tracked the migration of the tiny northern wheatear using minute tagging devices.
North Atlantic route:
Baffin Island (Breeding ground) to Britain to Mauritania (Wintering) - 15,000 km round trip
Siberian route:
Alaska/Siberia (Breeding ground) to Sudan/Arabian desert/Kenya (Wintering) - 29,000 km round trip
Northern Wheatear
Oenanthe oenanthe
Weight: 25 g
Conservation status: Least concern (IUCN)
Estimated population: 20-100 million
Great Snipe Migration
6,760 km in 3.5 days
Approx 2,000 km per day, approx 80 km per hour (22 m/s)
Bar-tailed Godwit Migration
May 1: went east to western Alaska, 7,200 km in 5 days
E7: left NZ March 17, arrived China 10,000 km in 8 days
August 29: left for NZ, arrived 8 miles from her capture site, 11,500 km in >8 days (av. 16 m/s)
7 months round trip of >29,000 km
Red Knot Muscle Variation
Variation in body mass and pectoral muscle thickness, as measured by ultrasound, of three red knots during a period of partial fasting and during subsequent refuelling (regain of weight).
Changes in pectoral muscle thickness, as measured by ultrasound, of four birds flying for 10h in a wind tunnel.
Pre-migration Proteins
Proteins increase during re-fuelling and pre-migratory fattening. E.g. Red knot (Calidris canutus) 40%
Metabolic Fuel
Energy density of carbohydrate (glycogen): 4.4 kJ g^{-1} (75% water). Can be used anaerobically, so good for relatively short or burst flights.
Once glycogen stores are depleted, the only other source of carbohydrate is via protein degradation and gluconeogenesis in the liver.
Energy density of protein: 5.4 kJ g^{-1} (70% water)
Energy density of lipid: 39.3 kJ g^{-1} (very little water).
Birds of Paradise
Blue bird of Paradise, Wilson’s bird of Paradise, Black Sicklebill bird of Paradise, Standard wing bird of Paradise, 12-wired bird of Paradise, Superb bird of Paradise
Avian Diversity
Mosaic evolution produces an evolutionary mosaic: avian diversity encompasses a spectacular variety of cranial forms.
BIRD ‘Radiation’ – 7 cranial modules
Bird Orders (Traditional Taxonomy)
Scaly feet, Perching, Swift, Ducks & Gulls {Pelicaniforms}, Raptors, Grebes, Hornbills & Kingfishers, Woodpeckers, Trogons, Waders & Grouse
Bird Classification (Traditional Taxonomy)
NEORNITHES (sub-class):
Infra-class: Palaeognathae (“Ratites”): Tinamiformes, Rheiformes, Casuariiformes, Apterygiformes, Struthioniformes
Infra-class: Neognathae: Galliformes, Anseriformes, Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Sphenisciformes, Procellariiformes, Balaenicipitiformes, Ciconiiformes, Ardeiformes, Gruiformes, Turniciformes, Ralliformes, Charadriiformes, Falconiformes, Strigiformes, Opisthocomiformes, Cuculiformes, Psittaciformes, Columbiformes, Caprimulgiformes, Apodiformes, Coliiformes, Pelecaniformes, Trogoniformes, Coraciiformes, Piciformes, Passeriformes
32 Orders (Livezey & Zusi Zool. J. Linn. Zoc. 2007)
Traditional Taxonomy: 28 Orders
Molecular Taxonomy
3’ Untranslated regions of RNA (3’ UTRs) phylogeny of extant “true birds”.
Approx 37 Orders - Kuhl et al. Mol. Biol. Evol. (2020) 38, 108-127
Infraclass RNA molecular Taxonomy 35 Orders
Phylogeny of Extant Birds
3’ Untranslated regions of RNA (3’ UTRs) phylogeny of extant “true birds”.
Approx 37 Orders - Kuhl et al. Mol. Biol. Evol. (2020) 38, 108-127
35 Orders
Examples of Orders:
Hoatzin, Nightjars, swift, hum, Bustards, Touracos, Cuckoos, Pigeons, Game birds - pheasant, Waterfowl – geese, Ratites, Tinamou, Palaeognathae
PALAEOGNATHAE
The Ratites and relatives
Emu + Cassowary (Au, 4 spp): Long inner toenail, Polyandrous
Kiwi (N.Z., 3 spp): 65% yolk monogamous
Rhea (S.Am., 2spp): Males incubate
Ostrich (Africa, 1 spp): Females incubate at night
Tinamou (S. Am., 47 spp): Males incubate
Apterygiformes, Casuariiformes, Struthioniformes, Rheiformes, Tinamiformes
Phylogeny
Tinamous are not basal or outliers!
Cladogram showing relationships between:
Struthionidae (ostriches) (Africa)
Apterygidae (kiwi) (New Zealand)
Tinamiformes (tinamou)
Rheidae (rheas) (South America)
Casuariinae (cassowaries) (Australia)
Dromaiinae (emus) (Australia)
Aepyornithidae (elephant birds) (Madagascar)
Dinornithiformes (moa) (New Zealand)
Phylogeny of Birds
A family-level phylogeny of birds based on 3′-UTR sequences including all (106) nonpasserine (A) and most … Mol Biol Evol, Volume 38, Issue 1, January 2021, Pages 108–127, https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa191
Ratites and Relatives
Tinamou (S. Am., 47 spp)
45 mya from Australia
Unique palate bones
African and S. Am. Ratites around 57 mya from Flying ancestor?
Gondwanaland split – flew over water?
Males incubate
No Crop
Fused wing bones
Broken wing display (O & E)
Pygostyle
Mammalian competition selected for increased body size and fast running?
Tinamiformes 66 mya
Phylogeny of Extant Birds (cont.)
Parrots, Seriemas – 2 spp., Falcons, Owls, Pelicans, cormorants, Hawks, vultures, Gannet, Boobies, Tropic birds, Penguins, Petrels, Hornbills, Woodpeckers, Toucans, Kingfishers, Rollers
Hoatzin Placement
Hoatzin?, Nightjars, swift, hum, Bustards, Touracos?, Cuckoos, Pigeons, Game birds - pheasant, Waterfowl – geese, Ratites, Tinamou, Palaeognathae
Cuckoos (Cuculiformes)
Zygodactyl feet
Very diverse (European cuckoo, tropical groups)
57 species in 2 subfamilies are parasitic on warblers to crows.
Ani, Roadrunner
Cuckoo Characteristics
Cuculinae
European cuckoo takes 10 secs to deposit egg after watching for days.
Mimics host egg, and gape and calls.
Short incubation (fastest of 11 days!)
Reed and sedge warblers and Dunnocks.
Ejects host eggs (Edward Jenner 1788 – smallpox vaccination from Variolae vaccinae).
Dunnock
Cuckoo Behavior
Induces equivalent feeding rates of 3 to 4 host young.
Can induce feeding even after leaving nest.
Lay between 12 and 25 eggs per year.
Hoatzin and Turacos
Birds such as the peculiar Hoatzin of South America and the Turacos of Africa were thought to be related, and both closely related to the cuckoos (Cuculiformes).
Musophagiformes, Opisthocomiformes
Turacos (Musophagiformes)
DNA places the Turacos in their own Order (Musophagiformes).
Unique because it has a green pigment called Turacoverdin and a red pigment called Turacin.
Are they sister group to Bustards (Otidiformes) [or Cuckoos (Cuculiformes]!
Hoatzin (Opisthocomiformes)
Very old extant bird lineage – around 64 mya.
Morphological and DNA classification puts Hoatzin in separate order, Opisthocomiformes.
Hoatzin has large muscular crop & is an obligate folivore.
Foregut fermenter.
[sister to Caprimulgiformes]
Hoatzin Characteristics
Opisthocomiformes
Foregut 25% of Mb
Food retained for 1 to 2 days
Helpers at the nest
Liquid diet with microbes
Juvenile wing claws (digits 1, 2 & 3 – Towers et al. 2011 Nature Comms 2:426).
Caprimulgiformes and Apodiformes
Eared nightjar, Nightjar, Nighthawk, Oilbird, Potoo, Frogmouth, Owlet-nightjar, Treeswift, Swift, Needletail swift, Topaz hummingbird, Hermit hummingbird, hummingbird, Owlet-nightjar
‘Swiftlet-hummer’?
Nightjars (Caprimulgiformes?)
Are crepuscular to night-time feeders
Large eyes and visual predators
Only avian hibernator
Nightjar Behavior
Lunar cycle - Usually only feed at dawn and dusk (around 1 hour) but during full moon will feed during middle of night
Lunar cycle - Whip poorwill tends to lay eggs around full moon. Helps with egg development but also chick rearing and then fledging.
Oilbirds (Steatornis caripensis) Steatornithidae
Most sensitive eyes in bird world
Named by Alexander von Humboldt (1799)
Light gathering power of f=1.07, with 9mm diameter pupil on only a 16mm deep eye.
Small rods (1.3 μm) in unique 3 tier design
1,000,000 rods per mm2 (highest in vertebrates)
Sensitive but poor colour vision.
Therefore, echolocation (1,000 to 15,000 Hz) can detect large objects/walls (>20 cm) and olfaction important.
Oilbird Diet
Eats palm nuts and figs by hawking (hovering).
Stays out in forest for days (every 3rd day in cave).
Strisores
Original Apodiformes?
Cladogram including:
Eared nightjar (Eurostopodus), Nightjar (Caprimulgus), Nighthawk (Chordeiles), Oilbird (Steatornis), Potoo (Nyctibius), Frogmouth (Podargus), Owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles), Treeswift (Hemiprocne), Swift (Streptoprocne), Needletail swift (Chaetura), Topaz hummingbird (Topaza), Hermit hummingbird (Phaethornis), hummingbird (Archilochus)
Apodiformes
The traditional order Apodiformes (“no legs”) included the swifts and the hummingbirds together.
The molecular classification agrees.
Swift most aerial bird in the world!
Hummingbirds Trochilidae
328 spp, 108 genera
Important plant pollinators
Trochilines (90%) and Topaz and Hermits
Hermits use male leks and Heliconia flowers
Specialist hovers – some migrate!
Hummingbird Flight
Wings give lift on upstroke.
Wingbeats between 15 and 80 Hz (200 Hz)
Breathing rates of 300 to 500 bpm.
Smallest – bee hummingbird (2.0 g).
Largest – Patagona gigas (20 g).
Hummingbird Metabolism
50% of its body mass in nectar per day
Need dilute urine and 10% salt intake per day
Commonly use torpor (Tb around 18°C)
Aggressive and resource territorial
Serially polygamous
Have 2 fovea in the eyes for better speed and distance judgement.
Hummingbird Reproduction
Female does all the work!
Lay 2 eggs
Hatch blind and almost naked.
Long nestling period (23 to 40 days depending on altitude).
Can fly even in rain!
Head can shake at 34 g (333 m s^{-2}) & Dive at 9 g.