AP European History Unit 2

2.2-2.5 Reformation and Wars of Religion

Luther and the 95 Theses

• In the early 16th century, the Catholic church was the center of life and most people were deeply pious. People of all social classes spent a great deal of their time and money participating in religious activities.

• Criticisms of the church at this time included absenteeism and pluralism but those criticisims had not led to any dramatic change.

• Martin Luther was an Augustinian monk who, through his study of the New Testament, came to believe that salvation was obtained by faith alone. He believed that the Scriptures reveled God to people, not the traditions of the Catholic church.

• During this time, Pope Leo X authorized a special indulgence to finance the building of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. In the German states, these sales were run by a Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel who promised the purchase of this indulgence would bring full forgiveness for one’s sins or the sins of a loved one from purgatory, saying “When a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”

• This was deeply troubling to Luther, who wrote his Ninety-five Theses in response, nailing it to the door of the church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. They were quickly printed in both Latin and German and widely disseminated.

• Luther continued to write, urging reforms in the church. His works were condemned by Rome and he was threatened with excommunication. In 1521, the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, called a diet, or assembly of nobility and clergy in the city of Worms and called Luther to appear. Luther refused to recant.

• After the Diet of Worms, religious division in the German states continued. In 1530, Charles V called an Imperial Diet in Augsburg to stop the spread of Protestantism. This was unsuccessful, and eventually Charles V agreed to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. This recognized Protestantism and allowed the German princes to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism.

Luther’s Background

• Son of a miner

• Educated by the Brothers of the Common Life

• Was going to be a lawyer, but entered a monastery instead

• Moves to Wittenberg, earns doctorate in 1512

• Becomes troubled with the sale of indulgences

The Spread of Protestant Ideas

How did Protestant ideas and institutions spread beyond German-speaking lands?

• Scandinavia

  • The first area outside of Germany to officially accept the Reformation was the kingdom of Denmark-Norway under King Christian III (r. 1536-1559).

  • While the process of conversion went smoothly in Denmark but was resisted in Norway and Iceland; it was gradually imposed.

  • In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa (r. 1523-1560) helped bring Protestantism to the region.

• Henry VIII and the English Reformation

  • The Catholic Church was vigorous in early 16th century England and there was less of a gap between clergy and educated lay people than elsewhere in Europe.

  • In 1534, in order to legitimize his divorce and subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn, English King Henry VIII convinced Parliament to approve the Act of Supremacy, making him head of the English Church.

  • Later, Henry seized monasteries and distributed their lands to the upper classes.

  • In 1536 popular opposition in the north due to the religious changes led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, a massive rebellion.

• Upholding Protestantism in England

  • Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603), daughter of Henry VIII, steered a middle course between Catholicism and the “Puritans” who wanted a “pure” church free of Catholic influences.

  • Philip II of Spain learned of a plot by Mary, Queen of Scots, cousin and heir of Elizabeth of England, to assassinate Elizabeth and assume the English throne. She would then re-establish Catholicism – Philip gave the plot his full backing.

  • Philip II used a compromised plan – the Spanish Armada would be soundly defeated by the English and the war between England and Spain would drag on for years, but Protestantism remained in England.

• Calvinism was the most important new form of Protestantism.

  • Proceeding from the idea of God’s absolute sovereignty and his omnipotence, John Calvin, concluded that human beings could do nothing to save themselves. God decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who would not a.k.a. predestination.

  • Calvin and the city government of Geneva attempted to regulate people’s conduct in order to create a godly city on earth. Card playing, dancing, and other forms of recreational activity were banned.

• The Establishment of the Church of Scotland

  • James Knox, a minister who studied in Geneva with Calvin, was instrumental in getting the Scottish Parliament to set up a Calvinist church as the official state church of Scotland (Presbyterianism).

Wars of Religion

• Religious Riots and Civil War in France; 1559-1598 marked years of violence and civil war in France.

• Three weak sons of Henry II:

  • Francis II – died after 17 months

  • Charles IX – succeeded at the age of 10 (mother is Catherine de’ Medici serves as regent)- Henry III – intelligent but incompetent

  • Henry III – intelligent but incompetent

• French nobility took advantage – sought religious reform through Calvinism.

  • Religious reform was especially important to the lower class – riots and acts of violence surrounded the reformers and those trying to keep Catholicism as the authority.

  • St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre was a savage Catholic attack on Calvinists in Paris – August 24, 1572.

• The War of the Three Henrys – a civil war sparked by the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre.

  • Catholic Henry of Guise

  • Protestant Henry of Navarre

  • Catholic King Henry III

• The Politiques – a small group who believed that only a strong monarchy could save France from collapse.

  • The death of Catherine de’ Medici, and the assassinations of Henry of Guise and King Henry III paved the way for the accession of Henry of Navarre, a politique, who became Henry IV.

• In the first half of the 17th century, the fragile balance of life was violently upturned by the Thirty Years War.

  • The uneasy truce between Catholics and Protestants created by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 deteriorated as the faiths of various areas shifted.

• The Bohemian phase (1618-1625) characterized by civil war in Bohemia between the Catholic League, led by Ferdinand, and the Protestant Union, headed by Prince Frederick of the Palatinate.

• The Danish phase (1625-1629) – King Christian IV of Denmark, leader of the Protestant cause was thoroughly beaten by the Catholic imperial army led by Albert of Wallenstein.

• The Swedish phase (1630-1635) – Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus, a devout Lutheran, arrived in Germany and scored several victories before becoming fatally wounded in the battle at Lutzen – the Swedish victories ended Habsburg ambition of uniting all the German states under imperial authority.

• French (International) phase (1635-1648) – French foreign policy had always opposed Habsburg rule because the independent principalities enhanced France’s international stature – Cardinal Richelieu declared war on Spain.

• The Treaty of Westphalia (Stipulates Peace of Augsburg) German princes retain independent authority – in effect destroying the Holy Roman Empire. Independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands is recognized.

Catholoic Reformation

• The Catholic Church responded to the Protestant Reformation through a drive for internal reform and an external movement aimed at opposing Protestants.

• The Council of Trent met from 1545-1563, laying a solid basis for spiritual renewal and reform. It reaffirmed doctrine and dealt with matters of discipline regarding absenteeism, pluralism, and simony.

• New Religious orders were founded, the most significant of which was the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola. The Jesuits spread the Roman Catholic faith to places like Brazil and India, and also brought much of southern Germany back to Catholicism. The Ursuline order of nuns was also established with the goal of teaching young girls, essentially training future wives and mothers.

• The Index of Prohibited Books was a list of forbidden reading including not only Protestant works but works by humanists such as Erasmus. The Inquisition dealt with dissent swiftly within areas controlled by the Catholic church

Witchcraft Trials