1741230959_751__Chapter_7_-_Learning

Chapter 7: Learning

Learning Objectives

• Define Learning:

  • Lasting change caused by experience inferred from behavior, not directly observed.

• Types of Learning:

  • Associative Learning: Links between two stimuli.

    • Examples: Classical and operant conditioning.

  • Non-Associative Learning: Involves repeated exposure to a single stimulus.

• Learning Processes:

  1. Basic processes of classical conditioning.

  2. Basic processes of operant conditioning and how to use shaping.

  3. Observational learning and concerns about media influence.

  4. Spatial navigation learning, implicit/latent/insight learning.

  5. Practice types: massed vs. spaced, conditions for semantic material.

  6. Early Learning: Types occurring before birth and early postnatal life.

  7. Learning disorders: Define specific learning disorders and three major types.

What Is Learning?

• Learning:

  • Lasting change attributed to experience.

  • Cannot be directly observed; inferred from behavior.

Two Types of Learning

• Associative Learning:

  • Change due to experience linking two or more stimuli.

• Non-Associative Learning:

  • Change without linking stimuli; occurs after repeated exposure to one stimulus.

Non-Associative Learning

• Habituation:

  • Weakening response to a stimulus after repeated exposure (e.g., a bird ignoring a human).

• Dishabituation:

  • Recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habitation (e.g., anxiety towards a new person).

• Sensitization:

  • Exaggerated response to weaker stimuli after a strong stimulus exposure (e.g., startling from noise).

Associative Learning

• Definition:

  • Connections formed between stimuli.

  • Most learning falls under this category.

• Types:

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

• Definition:

  • Associative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli, leading to a learned response.

Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

• Context:

  • Discovered by Ivan Pavlov; involved dogs and measuring salivation.

• Important Terms:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Natural elicits a response (e.g., food).

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural response to US (e.g., salivation).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that elicits the response when paired with US (e.g., bell).

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation when hearing bell).

Classical Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition:

  • Initial learning of the CS-US relationship, most effective when CS precedes US.

• Extinction:

  • Reduction of CR after repeated CS presentation without US.

• Spontaneous Recovery:

  • Reappearance of CR after extinction.

• Stimulus Generalization:

  • Similar stimuli elicit CR (e.g., fear of all snakes).

• Stimulus Discrimination:

  • Distinguishing between stimuli (e.g., differentiating between snake types).

• Higher-Order Conditioning:

  • A previously conditioned stimulus acts as US for new conditioning.

Classical Conditioning and Fear

• Little Albert Experiment:

  • Conducted by Watson and Rayner: demonstrated fear conditioning.

• Phobias:

  • Persistent fear of specific objects/situations from classical conditioning.

  • Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to reduce phobias.

Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversion

• Conditioned Taste Aversion:

  • Associating taste with illness develops aversions to certain foods (e.g., a specific alcohol).

Operant Conditioning

• Definition:

  • Behavior modification based on consequences.

• Law of Effect:

  • Behaviors leading to rewards are reinforced, punishments decrease behavior likelihood.

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcement:

  • Positive: Adding stimulus (e.g., sticker for good behavior).

  • Negative: Removing unpleasant stimulus (e.g., seatbelt beeping stops).

• Punishment:

  • Positive: Adding unpleasant outcome (e.g., yelling for wrong behavior).

  • Negative: Removing pleasant consequence (e.g., losing privileges).

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement:

  • Behavior reinforced every time; quicker learning.

• Intermittent Reinforcement:

  • Behavior reinforced sporadically; slower acquisition but harder to extinguish.

• Ratio Schedules:

  • Fixed: Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.

  • Variable: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

• Interval Schedules:

  • Fixed: Reinforcement after a fixed period.

  • Variable: Reinforcement after varying periods.

Learning New Behaviors

• Shaping:

  • Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior (e.g., dog training).

• Behavior Modification:

  • Systematic behavioral change using operant conditioning principles.

Learned Helplessness

• Definition:

  • Failure to escape after repeated exposure to punishment.

  • Example: Intimate partner violence statistics highlight the impacts of learned helplessness.

Observational Learning

• Definition:

  • Learning without direct training; learning by observing models.

• Vicarious Learning:

  • Observing consequences of another’s behavior influences choice to imitate.

• Mirror Neurons:

  • Neurons activated both during action and observation of the same action (e.g., Bobo doll experiment).

Implicit and Spatial Learning

• Implicit Learning:

  • Acquisition of information absent of awareness.

• Spatial Navigation Learning:

  • learning relevant associations for navigation.

• Latent Learning:

  • Learning that is not evident until rewarded.

• Insight Learning:

  • Sudden realization of solutions or new understandings.

Factors Facilitating Learning

• Timing:

  • Repeated experiences spaced over time enhance fact learning.

• Context:

  • Studying in varied locations strengthens memory recall.

• Awareness and Attention:

  • Attentive processes promote learning; selective attention can block certain stimuli (e.g., Stroop Effect).

• Sleep:

  • Essential for attention and memory consolidation; deprivation hinders learning.

Prenatal and Postnatal Learning

• Prenatal Learning:

  • Non-associative, includes habituation to stimuli.

• Postnatal Learning:

  • Newborns show capabilities like imitation of facial expressions.

Specific Learning Disorders

• Definition:

  • Disorder affecting basic psychological processes in academic skill development.

• Types:

  1. Dyslexia: Reading disorder.

  2. Dyscalculia: Mathematics disorder.

  3. Dysgraphia: Writing disorder.