Chapter 2 (C) - Mesopotamia

Early Middle Eastern & Northeast African Civilizations

Mesopotamia

• Definition: The term "Mesopotamia" means "between two rivers."

• Geography: Located in the Fertile Crescent, bordered by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

• Agriculture: Enriched the soil and initiated the early development of canals and ditches for water control, promoting agriculture.

Sumerian City-States

• Emergence: Sumerian city-states appeared around 3500 BC in Lower Mesopotamia.

• Religion:

  • Polytheistic: Each city-state worshiped multiple gods, and temples were built for them, featuring stone statues.

  • Divine Rulership: Each city had a god who ruled over it but under an overarching religion of the region. Local kings ruled cities.

• Trade:

  • Active traders using waterways as primary trade routes.

  • Wealth gained from imports due to scarcity in some resources.

Development of Writing

• Cuneiform: Developed as the first written script used for business, social, and religious purposes; writing was limited to educated elites.

Epic of Gilgamesh

• Cultural Significance: Most famous Sumerian text, depicting aspects of Sumerian life; Gilgamesh is believed to have ruled Uruk around 2500 BC.

Sumerian Culture

• Polytheism: Focused on nature gods, reflecting a pessimistic view of life and a lack of appealing afterlife.

• Slavery: Predominantly comprised war captives and debt slaves.

Akkadian Empire (c. 2334-2100 BC)

• Emergence: Akkadians began moving into Mesopotamia by 2400 BC.

• Key Figure: Sargon of Akkad (2270-2215 BC) became renowned for uniting the region; he rose from a captain to a king after conquering cities.

• Cultural Integration: Encouraged cultural diffusion by sending diplomats and promoting administrative roles.

  • Enheduana: Sargon's daughter, the first named author in history, served as a high priestess and wrote poetry, helping maintain control.

End of the Akkadian Empire

• Decline: Following Sargon’s death, the empire struggled; grandson Naram-Sin expanded but faced divine wrath after destroying temples.

• Collapse: In 2115 BCE, the capital Agade was destroyed by the Gutians, whose remnants have never been found.

Babylonian Empire (1792-1595 BC)

• Mathematics and Astronomy: Had significant advancements; used a sexagesimal system and tracked astronomical data, influencing modern calendars.

Hammurabi

• Prominence: Known as the greatest ruler of the Babylonian Empire (1728-1686 BCE), merged Sumer and Akkad through military and diplomatic means.

• Law Code: Developed the Code of Hammurabi, consisting of 282 laws governing society.

  • Principality: The law aimed for divine inspiration and societal order with punishments matching social rank.

Babylonian Society

• Marriage Practices: Usually arranged and monogamous, with the option for a second wife if the first could not produce children.

• Slavery:

  • Two forms of slavery: debt slavery (common) and chattel slavery (no legal rights, often branded).

Assyrian Empire (900–612 BCE)

• Military Strategy: Known for aggressive expansion using siege warfare and brutal tactics post-victory.

• Government: Functioned with a oligarchical nature and fell due to over-expansion.

New Babylonian Empire (626-539 BCE)

• Leadership: Led by Nebuchadnezzar II, known for extensive architectural contributions.

• Achievements: Notable construction of the Hanging Gardens, categorized as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Ishtar Gate

• Cultural Influence: Possibly a component of the Hanging Gardens; significant to Babylon and indicative of advanced architecture.