IS

PSY130 – Chapter 10 Emotions & Motivation

Introduction

  • Psychological study of motivation & emotion focuses on inter-related concepts that drive, color, and regulate behaviour.
    • Affect – the raw felt experience of emotion; the subjective, valenced “tone” of consciousness.
    • Arousal – bodily activation generated primarily by the sympathetic branch of the ANS; measured through heart rate, perspiration, pupil dilation, etc.
    • Emotion – a situation-specific, conscious, valenced mental state that integrates affect, cognition, physiology, & behaviour.
    • Motivation – the driving force that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-directed activity.
    • "Drive" typically originates from a negative or deficit state (e.g., hunger, loneliness).
    • Homeostasis – the natural equilibrium point the body attempts to maintain; drives “push” us back toward this set-point.

10.1 The Experience of Emotion

  • Behavioural components

    • Emotions shape both actions and thoughts; facial expressions, vocal tone, posture all shift with affect.
    • Facial musculature pattern:
    • Positive states = greater activation around mouth (zygomatic major).
    • Negative states = greater activation around eyes/brow (corrugator supercilii).
    • Universality hypothesis – certain basic facial displays (e.g. joy, fear) are recognized across cultures.
    • Cultural “accent” & Display Rules
    • Socially learned norms governing when, where, with whom, and how emotion is shown or suppressed; explains cross-cultural nuance.

  • Physiological theories (sequence problem: Which comes first—arousal or feeling?)

    • Cannon–Bard Theory – stimulus → simultaneous cortical emotion & autonomic arousal.
    • James–Lange Theory – stimulus → autonomic arousal → perception of those changes is the emotion.
    • Schachter–Singer Two-Factor Theory – stimulus → arousal + cognitive label → emotion.
    • Misattribution of arousal – labelling the physiological source incorrectly (e.g. shaky bridge experiment).
    • Excitation transfer – residual arousal from one event intensifies reaction to an unrelated event (e.g. sport spectators → bar fights).

  • Functions of emotion

    • Communicative signals to others (cry for help, smile to affiliate).
    • Prioritize perception & memory (fear ↑ visual field sensitivity; flashbulb memories).
    • Physiological mobilization (fight, flee, tend, repair).

  • Emotion Regulation – deliberate or automatic strategies to modulate experience or expression.

    • 5 empirically identified tactics (Gross, 1998):
    • Situation selection – approaching/avoiding contexts.
    • Situation modification – altering the setting (e.g. open a window, invite a friend).
    • Attentional deployment – distraction, concentration, mindfulness.
    • Cognitive change (re-appraisal) – reframing meaning (“exam = opportunity”).
    • Response modulation – influencing experiential, behavioural, or physiological response after it arises (e.g. deep breathing, expressive suppression).

10.2 Stress and Coping

  • Stress – physiological & psychological reaction to perceived demands > resources.

    • Not exclusively negative; eustress can energize.

  • Trauma-related disorders

    • Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) – intrusive memories, hyper-vigilance, avoidance; duration < 4 weeks.
    • Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – same core symptoms lasting ≥ 4 weeks.

  • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Hans Selye’s 3-phase model of chronic stress physiology:

    1. Alarm (fight/flight triggers).
    2. Resistance (continued endocrine & sympathetic activity).
    3. Exhaustion (resources depleted; illness risk ↑).

  • HPA Axis

    • Hypothalamus → Pituitary (ACTH) → Adrenal cortex → Cortisol.
    • Cortisol releases glucose into bloodstream, prepares body to confront threat; chronic elevation linked to immune suppression & neurotoxicity.

  • Health consequences

    • Fatigue, depression, impaired immunity, DNA telomere shortening (accelerated aging), hypertension, cardiovascular disease.

  • Cognitive/affective shift: narrowed focus on negatives, diminished growth & social engagement.

  • Everyday stress measurement

    • Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) assigns Life-Change Units 11–100 (e.g. traffic ticket =11, spouse’s death =100).
    • Sum over past 12 months predicts illness risk; omission of chronic social stressors (e.g. prejudice) noted.
    • Daily hassles (lost keys, delays) accumulate, predicting poorer health beyond SRRS.

  • Biobehavioural stress responses

    • Fight-or-Flight – mobilize to confront or escape.
    • Tend-and-Befriend – seek affiliation & caregiving; oxytocin implicated, adaptive for caregiving mammals.

  • Ten empirically supported coping strategies

    1. Eliminate / reduce stressor.
    2. Give & receive social support.
    3. Progressive muscle relaxation.
    4. Meditation / mindfulness.
    5. Adequate sleep (≈ 7–9 hrs).
    6. Aerobic & resistance exercise.
    7. Nature exposure (“forest-bathing”).
    8. Enjoyable activities & humour.
    9. Cognitive re-appraisal (change thoughts).
    10. Ask for professional or informal help.

10.3 The Power of Happiness

  • Subjective Well-Being (SWB) – self-reported happiness + life satisfaction.

    • Twin studies: heritability ≈ 30\text{–}40\%.
    • Basic needs fulfilment essential; once met, extra income shows diminishing marginal utility and may ↓ happiness via upward social comparison.
    • Relationship transitions (marriage, divorce, widowhood, parenthood) yield mixed SWB effects contingent on context, support, and expectations.

  • PERMA model (Seligman) – five building blocks of flourishing:

    • Positive Emotion – cultivate via gratitude, regulation skills.
    • Engagement – “flow” states, present-moment immersion.
    • Relationships – supportive, intimate social ties.
    • Meaning – service to something larger than self (work, faith, activism).
    • Accomplishment – pursue SMART goals:
    • Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound.

  • Core mindsets

    • Optimism – dispositional expectation of favourable outcomes; predicts persistence & immune resilience.
    • Self-Efficacy – belief in one’s capability to execute behaviours necessary for desired outcomes (Bandura); mediates stress appraisal & performance.

10.4 Motivation: Eating, Sex, and Achievement

Eating

  • Dual influence: biological & sociocultural.

    • Biological
    • Hypothalamus integrates glucose, leptin, ghrelin, insulin cues.
    • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) – calories burned at rest; major determinant of weight set-point.
    • Environmental
    • Meal timing cues; portion norms; modelling of peers while dining; cultural cuisine.

  • Eating disorders (ranked by prevalence)

    1. Binge-Eating Disorder (BED) – recurrent binges without compensatory purge; \approx75\% female, 25\% male; often overweight.
    2. Bulimia Nervosa – binge + purge (vomit, laxative, exercise); weight may be normal; 86\% female, 14\% male.
    3. Anorexia Nervosa – severe caloric restriction, significantly low weight, body-image disturbance, intense weight-gain fear; 85\% female, 15\% male; highest mortality of psychiatric disorders.

Sexual Behaviour

  • Beyond reproduction; includes bonding & pleasure (seen across social species).

  • Sexual Response Cycle (Masters & Johnson):

    1. Arousal – vasocongestion, lubrication.
    2. Plateau – vitals escalate, orgasm imminent.
    3. Orgasm – rhythmic myotonia; oxytocin surge.
    4. Resolution – body returns to baseline; refractory period (short-none in many females).

  • Gendered Orgasm Gap

    • In heterosexual encounters, men climax more frequently than women.
    • Lesbian encounters & female masturbation report higher orgasm rates → anatomical reality: most female orgasms clitoral; P-V intercourse alone often insufficient.
    • Cultural scripts emphasising male pleasure perpetuate gap → ethical call for inclusive sexual education.

  • Ovulation-linked behavioural shifts

    • Near ovulation females’ scent, facial symmetry, and vocal pitch rated more attractive by all genders.
    • Increased flirting, revealing attire, & sexual openness in females; male partners display heightened jealousy & testosterone after smelling ovulatory pheromones.
    • Economic impact: lap-dancer earnings peak during ovulation – real-world market evidence of subtle biological signals.

Achievement

  • Intrinsic Motivation – activity undertaken for inherent satisfaction (e.g., reading for curiosity) → correlated with creativity & persistence.

  • Extrinsic Motivation – actions performed for external reward (salary, grades).

    • Expectancy Theory (Vroom) – motivation = E \times I \times V (Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence):
    • Expectancy – belief effort → performance.
    • Instrumentality – belief performance → reward.
    • Valence – value of reward.
    • Clear, achievable incentives ↑ employee output.

  • Perseverance / Grit – long-term passion + sustained effort; common denominator among high achievers.

  • Mindsets (Dweck)

    • Growth – ability can be developed; encourages challenge-seeking & resilience.
    • Fixed – abilities static; fosters avoidance of failure, learned helplessness.
    • Educational & managerial implication: praise effort and strategies, not inherent talent.

Ethical / Practical Implications & Connections

  • Emotion-recognition universality suggests common human ground; yet display rules remind clinicians/educators to be culturally sensitive.
  • Misattribution & excitation transfer findings caution legal systems (e.g., eyewitness arousal) & marketing (fear-based ads) for potential bias.
  • Chronic stress physiology (HPA/GAS) underscores public-health need for socio-economic policies that reduce prolonged threat (poverty, discrimination).
  • PERMA & mindset research inform school curricula, workplace wellness, therapy (e.g., CBT re-appraisal, positive psychology exercises).
  • Understanding sexual response & orgasm gap promotes comprehensive, pleasure-inclusive sex education, reducing dysfunction & gender inequity.
  • Expectancy theory & self-efficacy guide organisational reward structures, coaching, and rehabilitation programs.