Lifespan canvas notes chapter 1

CHAPTER 1: A CULTURAL APPROACH TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

CONTENTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1

KEY TERMS 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE 4

ACTIVITIES FOR THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS 19

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES 20

CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT 29

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS 29

Revel VIDEOS 30

JOURNAL PROMPTS AND SHARED WRITING QUESTIONS 30

HANDOUTS 31

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Section 1

1.1 Describe how the human population has changed over the past 10,000 years and explain why the United States is following a different demographic path than other developed countries.

1.2 Distinguish between the demographic profiles of developed countries and developing countries in terms of income, education, and cultural values.

1.3 Define the term socioeconomic status (SES) and explain why SES, gender, and ethnicity are important aspects of human development within countries.

1.4 Explain the process of natural selection and trace the evolutionary origins of the human species.

1.5 Summarize the major changes in human cultures since the Upper Paleolithic period.

1.6 Apply information about human evolution to how human development takes place today.

Section 2

1.7 Compare and contrast three ancient conceptions of development through the life span.

1.8 Summarize Freud’s psychosexual theory of human development and describe its main limitations.

1.9 Describe the eight stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of human development.

1.10 Define the five systems of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory and explain how it differs from stage theories.

1.11 Outline the cultural-developmental model that will be the structure of this book and describe the new life stage of emerging adulthood.

Section 3

1.12 Recall the five steps of the scientific method.

1.13 Summarize the main measurements used in research on human development.

1.14 Distinguish between different types of research designs, including the two major types used in human development research.

1.15 Identify some key ethical standards for human development research.

KEY TERMS

Section 1

human development

culture

total fertility rate (TFR)

developed countries

developing countries

individualistic

collectivistic

traditional culture

globalization

majority culture

contexts

socioeconomic status (SES)

ethnicity

ecological niche

ontogenetic

phylogenetic

natural selection

hominin

Homo sapiens

hunter-gatherer

Upper Paleolithic period

Neolithic period

civilization

state

evolutionary psychology

Section 2

psychosexual theory

psychosocial theory

ecological theory

cultural-developmental model

emerging adulthood

Section 3

scientific method

hypothesis

research measurement

research design

sample

population

procedure

peer review

theory

questionnaire

interview

qualitative

quantitative

observations

biological measurements

reliability

validity

ecological validity

experimental design

independent variable

dependent variable

intervention

natural experiment

ethnographic research

case study

correlational design

correlation

cross-sectional design

longitudinal design

cohort effect

informed consent

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Introduction

A. The goal of this text is to take a cultural approach to understanding human development, the ways people grow and change across the life span.

B. Culture is the total pattern of a group’s customs, beliefs, art, and technology.

C. A biological perspective is also offered, especially in terms of how biology interacts with cultural and social influences.

D. Although your personal experience is an important source of insights into human development, it may not reflect how most humans develop, either now or in the past. In particular, if you have grown up in the United States, Canada, or Europe, you will find that your experience is in many ways highly unusual compared to most other people.

II. Section 1: Human Development Today and Its Origins

A. A Demographic Profile of Humanity

1. Population Growth and Change

LO 1.1 Describe how the human population has changed over the past 10,000 years and explain why the United States is following a different demographic path than other developed countries.

a. Historically, the human population was under 10 million. However, notable growth began to occur about 10,000 years ago.

b. Medical advances facilitated the population boom, and in 2018, the total human population is about 7.6 billion.

c. Most projections indicate the world’s population will rise to 11 billion by 2100 and then level off or decline.

d. The increase can be attributed to the current total fertility rate, or number of live births per woman, which is 2.5 of births per woman. This is higher than the replacement rate of 2.1.

e. Most growth will occur in economically developing countries, while a decline is expected in wealthy, developed countries. Developed countries are the most affluent countries in the world as classified by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

i. These countries include the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and most European countries.

ii. The population of developed countries is 1.3 billion, about 20% of the world’s population.

iii. The term “Western countries” is sometimes used to refer to most developed countries, except Japan and South Korea, which are considered Eastern countries.

f. In contrast, developing countries have lower levels of income and education but are experiencing rapid economic growth.

i. The population of developing countries is about 6.3 billion, about 80% of the world’s population.

g. Most developed countries, except the United States, are expected to lose population by 2050.

i. The U.S. population is expected to grow from 2018’s population of 325 million to 400 million by 2050 because the fertility rate that is slightly below the replacement rate and because the U.S. allows more legal immigration compared to other developed countries.

ii. Canada also has relatively open immigration policies, so it may also avoid the population decline projected for most developed countries.

iii. Japan is expected to decline the most—from 125 million to 97 million by 2050—due to a low fertility rate and lack of immigration.

2. Variations Across Countries

LO 1.2 Distinguish between developed countries and developing countries in terms of income, education, and cultural values.

a. There are large income differences between developing and developed countries.

i. 80% of the world’s population lives on a family income of less than $6,000 per year.

ii. 90% of individuals in developed countries are in the top 20% of the global income distribution; at the other extreme is southern Africa, where half of the population is in the bottom 20% of global income.

b. There is also an educational divide between developing and developed countries.

i. Nearly 100% of children in developed countries are afforded a primary and secondary education, and about half go on to college or postsecondary training.

ii. In developing countries, about 20% do not complete primary school, but only half advance to secondary school; college and other tertiary education is for the wealthy elite.

c. Cultural differences across developed and developing countries should be noted.

i. Developed countries tend to foster individualistic values, such as independence and self-expression.

ii. Developing countries prize collectivistic values, such as obedience and group harmony.

d. In developing countries there is a sharp divide between rural and urban areas.

i. The lives of middle-class persons in urban areas of developing countries resemble the lives of people in developed countries.

ii. Individuals in rural areas of developing countries tend to live in traditional cultures. They tend to adhere to historical traditions of their culture more closely than people in urban areas do and to be more collectivistic out of economic necessity.

e. The term globalization refers to the increasing connections between different parts of the world in trade, travel, migration, and communication.

3. Variations Within Countries

LO 1.3 Define the term socioeconomic status (SES) and explain why SES, gender, and ethnicity are important aspects of human development within countries.

a. Human development varies not only between developing and developed countries, but within each as well.

i. Most countries have a majority culture that sets most of the norms and standards and holds most of the positions of political, economic, intellectual, and media power.

ii. There may be many minority cultures defined by ethnicity, religion, language, or other characteristics.

b. The contexts in which human development occurs vary based on the environmental setting and circumstances that surround the individual, including environmental settings such as family, peers, school, work, religious institutions, and media.

c. Additional aspects of variation include socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and ethnicity.

i. SES refers to social class and is based on educational level, income, and occupational status. A high SES is associated with positive developmental outcomes and a low SES is associated with negative outcomes.

ii. Gender role expectations vary within and between countries and are key factors in every culture. However, the degree of differences varies greatly among cultures.

iii. Ethnicity—group identity that may include cultural origin and traditions, race, religion, and language—is a crucial part of human development. Often ethnic minorities within countries have distinct cultural patterns that are different from those of the majority culture.

B. Human Origins: The Rise of a Cultural and Global Species

1. According to biologists, all animals have evolved to fit the conditions of an ecological niche, a set of environmental conditions in a particular place and time.

2. Although humans originally evolved in an ecological niche—the African savannah—we developed characteristics, including unusually large brains—that have allowed us to become a cultural species and to live anywhere.

3. Before looking at the development of individuals—called ontogenetic development—we will look at the development of the human species, or our species’ phylogenetic development.

4. Our Evolutionary Beginnings

LO 1.4 Explain the process of natural selection and trace the evolutionary origins of the human species.

a. According to evolutionary theory, first proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859, species change through the process of natural selection.

i. Young are born with variations on a wide range of characteristics.

ii. Those who are most likely to survive until they can reproduce will be the ones whose variations are best adapted to their environment.

b. Human evolution began about 6 to 8 million years ago when a common primate ancestor split into one of three paths: humans, chimpanzees, or gorillas.

i. The evolutionary line that led to modern humans is called the hominin line.

ii. By 200,000 years ago the early hominin species had evolved into our species, Homo sapiens.

iii. Over millions of years, several characteristics developed that made us distinct from earlier hominins and other primates:

1) Larger brain

2) Wider pelvis in females

3) Longer period of infant and childhood dependency

4) Development of tools

5) Control of fire

iv. A hunter-gatherer lifestyle developed whereby males traveled to hunt and scavenge and females remained at home and gathered edible plants and cared for the young.

v. Some time between 125,000 and 60,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa and adapted to life in different environments.

5. The Origin of Cultures and Civilizations

LO 1.5 Summarize the major changes in human cultures since the Upper Paleolithic period.

a. Homo sapiens have remained physically similar for the last 200,000 years. During the Upper Paleolithic period (50,000–10,000 years ago), evidence of culture first appeared. In addition to the beginning of artistic production, other important changes included:

i. Burial of the dead

ii. Beginning of trade between human groups

iii. Rapid acceleration in development of tools

iv. First boats invented

v. Development of cultural differences between human groups

b. The Neolithic period followed, about 10,000–5,000 years ago.

i. The hallmarks of the period included farming and animal domestication, a warmer climate, new tools, and permanent dwellings.

ii. The key contributor to these advances was climate change; temperatures of the earlier Ice Age (Upper Paleolithic period) began to warm, and by the Neolithic period the climate resembled our climate today.

iii. New plants evolved that were good human food sources and humans began to produce more food.

iv. Huge animals that had been hunted became extinct, and humans began domesticating other animals.

c. Civilization as we know it began around 5,000 years ago.

i. Civilization is characterized by the development of cities, writing, specialization into different kinds of work, differences among people in wealth and status, and a central political system known as a state.

ii. Civilizations and states arose due to agricultural efficiency, which led to the opportunity to create and work in fields not related to food production. As people spread, the state tended to infrastructure and trade development.

6. Human Evolution and Human Development Today

LO 1.6 Apply information about human evolution to how human development takes place today.

a. Each of us develops today based in part on our evolutionary history.

i. We share many characteristics with our hominin relatives and ancestors.

ii. Evolutionary psychology examines patterns of human functioning and behavior that has resulted from adaptions to evolutionary conditions.

b. Biologically, little evolutionary change has occurred since the origin of Homo sapiens, but much has changed in terms of culture.

c. As members of the species Homo sapiens we all share a similar biology, but cultures shape the raw material of biology into widely different paths through the life span.

d. Culture is what makes us unique as a species and it developed in part from our large brains and our ability to learn, create, and adapt.

III. Section 2: Theories of Human Development

A. Ancient Conceptions

1. The text examines three ancient ways of conceptualizing human development; all three were written by and for men only.

2. Conceptions of Development in Three Traditions

LO 1.7 Compare and contrast three ancient conceptions of development through the life span.

a. The Dharmashastras, the oldest known conception of a life course from the sacred law books of the Hindu religion, was written about 3,000 years ago. In this conception there are four stages of a man’s life: apprentice (ages 0–25), householder (ages 26–50), forest dweller (ages 51–75), and renunciant (ages 75–100).

b. Solon, a philosopher in ancient Greece about 2,500 years ago, proposed 10 seven-year segments of life, lasting from birth to age 70.

c. The third conception of life was drawn from the Jewish holy book the Talmud about 1,500 years ago and comprises 14 stages that goes up to age 100, but in smaller segments than proposed by the Dharmashastras.

d. There are similarities among these three conceptions of life.

i. They share an idealistic view of human development.

ii. Youth is a preparation for life and a time of immaturity.

iii. Adulthood is a time to develop skills and expertise.

iv. The peak of influence and status is reached in midlife.

v. The final stages of life constitute a time of withdrawal and decline.

e. The difference between the three, traditional conceptions of life is found in the way in which life span development is divided.

B. Scientific Conceptions

1. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

LO 1.8 Summarize Freud’s psychosexual theory of human development and describe its main limitations.

a. Sigmund Freud was the first to devise a known scientific theory of human development. As a clinician, his theory was based on working with mentally ill patients who had experienced and repressed a traumatic childhood event.

b. He developed and used psychoanalysis to help patients uncover and heal from their traumatic pasts.

c. The basis of Freud’s psychosexual theory was that sexual desire is the driving force behind human development.

d. He divided the mind into three areas called the id (pleasure principle), superego (conscience, which adults teach the child to develop), and ego (mediator; operates on the reality principle).

e. Freud viewed the personality as complete by age 6. During the course of early development, the locus of the sexual drive shifts around the body in stages.

i. Oral: Sexual sensations are concentrated in the mouth; infants derive pleasure from sucking, chewing, and biting.

ii. Anal: Sexual sensations are concentrated in the anus; infants derive their greatest pleasure from the act of elimination.

iii. Phallic: The child’s sexual sensations become located in the genitals and his or her desires are focused on the other-sex parent. Freud called this stage, comprising 3- to 6-year-olds, the Oedipus complex. This is resolved when the child, fearing that the same-sex parent will punish him or her for incestuous desires, seeks to become more similar to the same-sex parent.

iv. Latency: From age 6 until puberty, the child represses sexual desires and focuses on learning social and intellectual skills.

v. Genital: From puberty onward, the sexual drive reemerges and, now approved by the superego, is directed toward persons outside the family.

f. There are limitations of Freud’s psychosexual theory.

i. No single motive can explain the complexity of human development.

ii. Freud never studied children; he based his theory on retrospective accounts upper-class, adult women who came to him for therapy.

iii. His theory emphasized boys’ development and virtually ignored girls.

g. It was the dominant theory until the latter half of the 20th century; today, few people adhere to this theory.

2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

LO 1.9 Describe the eight stages of Erickson’s psychosocial theory of human development.

a. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development was based on our drive to become integrated into our social and cultural environment throughout the life span.

b. Each of the eight stages of development is characterized by a distinctive developmental challenge or “crisis” that a person must successfully resolve. His theory extends across the life span.

i. Trust vs. mistrust (infancy)

ii. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (toddlerhood)

iii. Initiative vs. guilt (early childhood)

iv. Industry vs. inferiority (middle childhood)

v. Identity vs. identity confusion (adolescence)

vi. Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood)

vii. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)

viii. Ego integrity vs. despair (late adulthood)

c. Erickson’s psychosocial theory has endured better than Freud’s theory. Today, nearly all researchers who study human development would agree that development is lifelong.

d. Of all of the stages he outlined, identity in adolescence and generativity in midlife have inspired substantial interest and attention among researchers.

3. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

LO 1.10 Define the five systems of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory and explain how it differs from stage theories.

a. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development is a systems approach to development, not a stage theory. It focuses on five interrelated social systems that influence development.

i. Microsystem: immediate environmental settings and relationships

ii. Mesosystem: the network of interconnections between the various microsystems

iii. Exosystem: societal institutions with an indirect influence

iv. Macrosystem: shared cultural beliefs and values and the economic and governmental systems built on those beliefs and values

v. Chronosystem: individual and historical changes in developmental circumstances

b. Aspects of his theory make it useful for the approach in the textbook: recognition of historical contexts and the emphasis on children as active participants in their development.

4. A Cultural-Developmental Model for This Text

LO 1.11 Outline the cultural-developmental model that will be the structure of this text and describe the new life stage of emerging adulthood.

a. The textbook combines elements of Erikson’s and Bronfenbrenner’s approaches but adds an emphasis on culture in human development.

b. The framework for the textbook is a cultural-developmental model. Following are its three essential features:

i. Humans always develop within a culture.

ii. It is necessary to study development in diverse cultures.

iii. Today, many cultures are changing rapidly, and cultural identities are becoming more complex for many people. It is not uncommon for individuals to identify with more than one culture.

c. This text divides human development into the following stages:

i. Prenatal development, from conception until birth

ii. Infancy, birth to age 12 months

iii. Toddlerhood, ages 12 to 36 months

iv. Early childhood, ages 3 to 6

v. Middle childhood, ages 6 to 9

vi. Adolescence

vii. Emerging adulthood

viii. Young adulthood

ix. Middle adulthood

x. Late adulthood

d. Emerging adulthood is a new stage of life between adolescence and young adulthood

i. This reflects the fact that young people now continue their education into their 20s and enter marriage and parenthood in their late 20s and early 30s.

ii. This new life stage exists mainly in developed countries but is becoming steadily more common in developing countries.

e. It is important to recognize that human life stages are cultural inventions and are culturally variable, not universal and biologically based.

IV. Section 3: How We Study Human Development

A. The Scientific Method

1. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method

LO 1.12 Recall the five steps of the scientific method.

a. The scientific method is a process of scientific investigation involving a series of five steps.

b. Step 1: Identify a Question of Scientific Interest

i. The question of interest may be generated by a theory or previous research, or it may be something the researcher has noticed from personal observation or experience.

c. Step 2: Form a Hypothesis

i. A hypothesis is the researcher’s idea about the possible answer to the question proposed for investigation.

d. Step 3: Choose Research Measurement and Research Design

i. The research measurement is the approach to collecting data when investigating the hypothesis.

ii. The research design is the plan for when and how to collect data for a study.

e. Step 4: Collect Data to Test the Hypothesis.

i. Data are collected from a sample, a subset of a population for which data are collected in a scientific study.

ii. The sample should represent the population, the entire category a sample represents.

iii. Using a representative sample increases the generalizability of the findings so that conclusions may extend to the population.

iv. The procedure is the way a the study is conducted and the data are collected, which should avoid bias.

f. Step 5: Draw Conclusions and Form New Questions and Hypotheses.

i. Conclusions are based on results that have been statistically analyzed.

ii. The researcher determines whether the data support or refute the hypothesis and interprets them based on relevant theories and previous research.

iii. The research is usually disseminated by writing a manuscript that is submitted to a journal that is peer reviewed so that the work can be assessed for accuracy and credibility by peer experts and then accepted by a journal editor if it is deemed worthwhile.

iv. Research may lead to the development or modification of theories. A theory is an original framework that presents a set of interconnected ideas in an original way and inspires further research.

B. Research Measurements, Designs, and Ethics

1. Research Measurements

LO 1.13 Summarize the main measurements used in research on human development.

a. Questionnaires

i. Questionnaires are the most commonly used method in social science research.

ii. In a closed-question format, participants are provided specific responses, which makes it easy to collect and analyze the data; useful for large data sets.

iii. In an open-question format, participants are allowed to state their responses.

iv. Limitations of questionnaires: A closed-question format may miss the depth, complexity, and diversity of the participants.

b. Interviews

i. Interviews capture people’s individuality and complexity by allowing them to describe their lives in their own words.

ii. Interviews provide qualitative data that are not readily quantifiable because it is not in numerical form. This differs from quantitative data, which is collected in numerical form.

iii. Limitations of interviews: Responses must be coded according to some plan of classification, which takes time, effort, and money.

c. Observations

i. Observations involve making systematic observations of people’s behaviors and recording that information.

ii. In naturalistic observations, the observations take place in the natural environment.

iii. In structured observations, the observations take place in a laboratory setting.

iv. These methods have an advantage over questionnaires and interviews in that they involve actual behavior rather than self-reports of behavior.

v. The disadvantage is that the people being observed may be aware of the observer and their behavior may be different than it would be under normal conditions.

d. Biological Measurements

i. Research using biological measurements includes research on the genetic basis of development, hormonal functioning, and brain functioning.

ii. Research on genetics involves directly examining the structure of genes.

iii. Research on brain functioning often involves measuring brain activity during different kinds of behavior.

iv. Biological measurements allow for precise measurements that can give researchers knowledge into how biological aspects of development are related to cognitive, social, and emotional functioning.

v. However, some biological measurements rely on expensive equipment, such as EEGs and fMRIs; in addition, the relation of biological measurements to other aspects of functioning is often far from exact.

e. Reliability and Validity

i. In scientific research, it is important that research measurements have reliability and validity.

ii. Reliability generally refers to the extent to which measurements generate consistent results.

iii. Validity refers to the truthfulness of a measurement.

iv. One type of validity is ecological validity, which is the extent to which there is a fit between the measurement approach and the everyday life of the people being studied.

2. Research Designs

LO 1.14 Distinguish between different types of research designs, including the two major types used in human development research.

a. Experimental Design

i. The experimental design of a study is one that entails comparing an experimental group that receives a treatment of some kind to a control group that receives no treatment.

ii. In an experiment, participants are randomly assigned to an experimental group, which receives a treatment of some kind, or a control group, which receives no treatment.

iii. In an experiment, there are independent variables and dependent variables.

1) An independent variable is the variable that differs from the control group.

2) A dependent variable is the outcome that is measured to calculate the results of the experiment by comparing the experimental group to the control group.

iv. Interventions are programs intended to change the attitudes or behavior of participants and are often measured experimentally to determine their effectiveness.

v. The advantage of the experimental method is that it allows control over participants’ behavior and gives the researcher the ability to make causal, rather than correlational, statements about the effectiveness of the experimental manipulation.

vi. The disadvantage is that it is difficult to say whether the results would apply in normal life.

b. Natural Experiments

i. A natural experiment is a situation that exists naturally but provides interesting scientific information.

ii. Natural experiments provide the advantage of allowing for exceptional insights into naturally occurring events.

iii. However, they tend to be rare and to occur unpredictably, so such studies can provide answers to a limited range of questions.

c. Ethnographic Research

i. Ethnographic research is in-depth observational research over time that occurs when the researcher lives and interacts with the participants.

ii. The results of this research are usually published in a book called an ethnography.

iii. An advantage is that this method allows the researcher to lean how people behave in their daily lives.

iv. This method is time consuming and expensive, requiring a great deal of time, commitment, and sacrifice by the researcher, who may develop bias due to personal relationships with participants.

d. Case Studies

i. A case study is a detailed examination of the life of one person or a small number of persons.

e. Correlational Design

i. A correlation is a statistical relationship between two variables, such that knowing one of the variables makes it possible to predict the other.

ii. A positive correlation means that when one variable increases or decreases, the other variable changes in the same direction; a negative correlation means that when one variable increases, the other decreases.

iii. Correlational studies can be completed quickly and inexpensively; data collection is done on one occasion, and the study is finished.

iv. However, correlations are difficult to interpret. Researchers often overlook the basic principle that correlation does not imply causation.

f. Cross-sectional Design

i. The cross-sectional design is the most common of the two human development research designs.

ii. A cross-sectional design uses age as the key independent variable.

iii. The main strength of this design is that these studies can be completed in a relatively affordable and timely manner.

iv. A key disadvantage is that the design can only show a correlation between age and the dependent variable; it cannot establish causation.

g. Longitudinal Design

i. A longitudinal design uses the same participants, collecting data over time, at least twice but often more frequently.

ii. These studies from a few weeks or months to years or decades.

iii. They allow researchers to examine development over time, giving greater insight into the question of correction versus causation.

1) A cohort effect is an explanation of group differences among people of different ages based on the fact that they grew up in different cohorts or historical periods.

iv. These studies require a great deal of money, time, and patience; also, over time, some people will drop out of a study, which is called attrition.

3. Ethics in Human Development Research

LO 1.15 Identify some key ethical standards for human development research.

a. The purpose of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) is to prevent ethical violations in research. They usually require the following components as part of the research proposal:

i. Protection from physical and psychological harm

ii. Informed consent prior to participation. Informed consent is a procedure that entails informing potential participants of what their participation would involve, including any possible risks, and giving them the opportunity to agree to participate or not. The consent form includes important information about the study, such as expectations, risks, and benefits. It also lets the participant know that participation is voluntary, withdrawal at any time is permissible, and for minors, parents must consent.

iii. Confidentiality. Information about research participants is not shared outside the immediate research group and they will not be identified by name.

iv. Deception and debriefing. Deception is sometimes required to study phenomena that subjects might want to hide. If deception is used, the researchers must debrief that participant afterward. That is, they must tell the participant the true purpose of the study.

ACTIVITIES FOR THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS

First Day Activity and Discussion: Human Development

The text defines human development as “ways people grow and change across the life span [which] includes people’s biological, cognitive, psychological, and social functioning.” Have students reflect on how they have changed and/or grown in each of these four areas and then write in their notebooks two to three examples for each area. When they are finished, have them join three to four other students to share their responses. Allow a few minutes for sharing, and then bring students back together and ask them whether they found some ways that all members of their group have changed—these may indicate universal aspects of development. Last, ask for volunteers to share how they think their development was different than everyone else’s—these may indicate individual differences. Explain that both will be studied throughout the course.

First Day Lecture Suggestion and Activity: Introduction to the Cultural Approach of This Textbook

The text takes a cultural approach to human development. It is important to frame this idea for students as many of them have a very narrow view of culture. Introduce the “frog in the bottom of the well” story from the chapter introduction and the definition of culture to the students. Have students generate examples of the culture, or cultures, to which someone may belong. Some of the categories that may be represented might include nationality, race, SES, family, college or university, religious affiliation, and so on.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: What Is Culture?

Does it make sense to use the concept of race? The text defines culture as “the total pattern of a group’s customs, beliefs, art, and technology.” Betancourt and Lopez (1993) caution against the tendency to confuse the concept of culture with the concepts of race, ethnicity, nationality, and social class. Zuckerman (1990) argues that the concept of race is particularly likely to be misused in social science research and provides evidence of greater within-group differences than between-group differences in characteristics of the three “races” (Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid). Betancourt and Lopez point out that even biological factors found to vary with “race” (such as hypertension) may be attributable to cultural factors (such as diet, lifestyle, or psychological stress). Zuckerman cites cross-cultural studies in which findings of “racial differences” were a result of arbitrary sampling decisions. For example, several early studies of infant temperament reported cross-cultural differences based on a single sample from each of three different “racial” groups. According to Zuckerman, however, similar variation in temperament has been demonstrated in comparisons of infants in samples from three different groups of Africans—Kikuyu, Digo, and Masai (De Vries & Sameroff, 1984).

Sources:

Betancourt, H., & Lopez, S. R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, and race in American psychology. American Psychologist, 48, 629–637.

De Vries, M. W., & Sameroff, A. J. (1984). Culture and temperament: Influences on human temperament in three East African societies. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 83–96.

Zuckerman, M. (1990). Some dubious premises in research and theory on racial differences: Scientific, social, and ethical issues. American Psychologist, 45, 1297–1303.

Section 1 Discussion/Activity: What Is Culture?

Provide students with a list of different social groups and ask them to determine whether each is a culture by applying the definition listed in the “Lecture Launcher: What Is Culture?” These might include such social groups as, for example, soldiers, women, emo music fans, Irish people, Canadians, or people in poverty.

Then, have students write down which culture or cultures they are members of and how that may have influenced their development. Finally, have students break into small groups of 4–5 each and discuss their cultural similarities and differences. This is a good rapport-building activity for the first or second day of class. In an online class, this is treated as a discussion board activity in which students respond to the same prompts and then read others’ replies and find three students with whom they have cultural similarities and differences to respond to on the discussion board.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Development in Culture Across the Life Span

Another point you may want to make early in the course is that there is a continuity of culture-individual interaction across the life span. An excellent source for developing a lecture on this topic is Valsiner and Lawrence (1997). They suggest that a cultural view of development provides the greatest opportunity for understanding development over an individual’s entire lifetime. In support of this view, they include Bronfenbrenner’s (1993) person-context-process-time model. Although this chapter is highly theoretical, it includes many references to anecdotal “evidence” that might be useful in conveying the idea of continuity to students. The material presented here represents a shift in paradigm.

Sources:

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1993). The ecology of cognitive development: Research models and fugitive findings. In R. H. Wozniak & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Development in context (pp. 3–44). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Valsiner, J., & Lawrence, J. (1997). Human development in culture across the life span. In J. W. Berry, P. R. Dasen, & T. S. Saraswathi (Eds.). Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology (Vol. 2, 2nd ed., pp. 69–106). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Introduce Charles Darwin

The “Research Focus: Darwin’s Diary, A Case Study” boxed feature (in the text’s “Research Designs” section associated with Learning Objective 1.14) includes the story of Charles Darwin and the development of his thinking on evolution by means of natural selection, which is an extremely interesting story. It is best told in his own words (Darwin, 1887). As you present information about Charles Darwin, elaborate on some of the points in his autobiography that you find interesting and tie them to the larger picture of how science advances. Students will find your insights into Darwin’s life compelling not only because they shed light on Darwin as a human being, but also because they will help reveal the personal, human side of scientific endeavor.

Sources:

Darwin, F. (1950/1887). Charles Darwin’s autobiography. New York: Henry Schuman.

In addition, John van Wyhe’s biographical sketch of Darwin, “Charles Darwin: Gentleman Naturalist,” is available online. You can access it by searching for the title and author’s name in an online search engine.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Evolution as an Integrative Theme from the Beginning of Class

Some students have a difficult time with the idea of evolutionary theory, which in part may be due to the misconceptions they harbor. Others may be resistant to the theory because of religious beliefs. Peter Gray provides a brief article in the APS Observer with teaching tips for using evolution by natural selection as a way to tie together the many theories and facts provided in a developmental psychology course (and other psychology courses). He later produced a more detailed article in the Teaching of Psychology journal.

Sources:

Gray, P. (1996). Using evolution by natural selection as an integrative theme in psychology courses. APS Observer, 9(3).

Gray, P. (1996). Incorporating evolutionary theory into the teaching of psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 23(4), 207–214.

Additional Sources:

Barker, L. (2009). Teaching evolutionary psychology: An interview with David M. Buss. Teaching of Psychology, 33(1), 69–73.

Prescott, S. (1984). An evolutionary model applied to teaching. Teaching of Psychology, 11(4), 198–202.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Varying Perspectives on Development

After students have read or you have presented the “frog in the bottom of a well” story from the chapter introduction, present the poem “The Blind Men and the Elephant” by John Godfrey Saxe to your class. You can find the poem online by entering the title and poet’s name in an online search engine. The poem is a good introduction to why there are so many theoretical perspectives in developmental psychology. It also ties in nicely with the text’s “frog in the bottom of a well” story as it demonstrates that even developmental theorists can have a narrow view of the discipline. Note that in the text, the authors favor a stage model that incorporates the cultural influences noted in a systems approach (see “A Cultural-Developmental Model for This Text,” the section associated with Learning Objective 1.11).

Although the authors briefly introduce the major theories of development in Chapter 1, they wait until later chapters to go into greater depth on each. You may want to introduce these theories in depth in the beginning of the semester. Students may be confused by the various theories, and an early, in-depth introduction provides more opportunities for them to understand the similarities and differences among the theories

Sources:

Crain, W. C. (1980). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall. Crane’s book can help you structure your lecture.

Hergenhahn, B. R. (1984). An introduction to theories of personality (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hergenhahn’s book includes good chapters on Freud, Erickson, Skinner, and Bandura.

Miller, P. H. (2011). Theories of developmental psychology (5th. ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Miller’s book is an excellent and clearly written overview of the major theories in development. The strength of her book is its organization and comparison of theories. Her third edition has an extensive chapter on Vygotsky, and her introductory chapter is a good guide for first lectures.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Stage Theory: What Is a Stage Theory?

As an instructor, you are familiar with stage theories, as you spend a great deal of time studying them. Freud’s stages of psychosexual development, Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, and Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are part of the world of developmental psychology, but what is implied to our students when they hear a given theory referred to as a stage theory?

Reber (1985) defines a stage theory as one that looks at changes in any of the domains of development psychology occurring in a step-like sequence. He further states that stage theories tend to be either maturational or interactional in nature and that they are biologically determined or result from interactions between biological and experiential factors.

Actually, even if the word stage was not used in referring to many psychological theories, it would still be easy to discern which theories are stage theories and which are not, because there are four properties that define stage theories. Without any one of these properties, you do not have a stage theory. These properties include the following:

• A stage theory must predict qualitative differences in behavior, over both time and experience.

• A stage theory must assume invariance of the sequence of stages.

• A stage theory assumes structural cohesiveness of a stage; the behaviors within a stage must share a common conceptual base.

• There must be a hierarchical integration of structures from stage to stage, so that later stages incorporate and expand on the structures from earlier stages.

Now, back to the question: What does the term stage theory imply and subsequently mean to students? First, it means that a stage theory is presumed to be universal, which is what “over both time and experience” means. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development offers an easy example. Piaget proposed that all children, regardless of nationality, ethnicity, or sociocultural background, experience their intellectual development in the same way. The same sequence of events unfolds, regardless of where the child lives and under what conditions. Further, Piaget proposed that the changes were not only predictable and universal but that the changes were qualitatively different as the child moved from one stage to the next. For example, a 7-year-old child can conserve liquid, but a 4-year-old cannot. That is a qualitative difference in the thought process, and it is a function of the developmental process.

Second, stage theories and stage theorists believe that there can be no latitude in the progression of the stages of development. In Eriksonian terms, a child must resolve the trust vs. mistrust conflict and learn to trust before he or she can move on to the stage of autonomy vs. self-doubt, because unless the trust vs. mistrust conflict has been resolved, the child has no possibility of resolving the autonomy issue. Stage 1 must precede Stages 2, 3, 4, and so on.

Third, cohesiveness of a stage and a common conceptual base indicate that the stage itself must fit within the overall theoretical construct, as implied by the underlying conceptual basis of the theoretical position.

Finally, stage theories represent a series of building blocks, in that one builds on the other in a hierarchical fashion. Each stage must progress logically from the one preceding it and lead logically to the one following. If a given theory satisfies these four requirements, it can be referred to properly as a stage theory.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

The authors introduce Bronfenbrenner’s ecological (systems) theory in Chapter 1 (see “Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory,” the section of the text associated with Learning Objective 1.10). Bronfenbrenner developed a model for studying the interactions among an individual’s social environments. The five basic structures of the model are the microsystem (family, peers, school, community, media), the mesosystem (interaction between two microsystems; e.g., parent conferences are an interaction between family and school and the community censoring the media is another example), the exosystem (parent’s jobs, school boards, city council); the macrosystem (a person’s subculture or culture); and the chronosystem (involving the way the passage of time affects children’s development). Explaining Bronfenbrenner’s theory can stimulate a good class discussion about the various interactions among each system.

Source:

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (Vol. 6). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Section 2 Activity: Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

After discussing the eight stages of Erikson’s theory, ask students to list the stages down the left side of a sheet of paper, leaving room for examples of each one. Have students reflect on each stage and give an example of themselves, a friend, or a family member that has gone through this stage, the approximate age it happened, what this crisis looked like for that person, and in which direction it was resolved. When students are finished, have each share responses with one other student.

Section 2 Activity: Developmental Comparisons Across Species

The authors mention some milestones in the chapter related to the various major theories of development. In this activity, students will compare developmental milestones across species. Have students choose a species for which there is a lot of information available (e.g., the various primates, any domesticated animal, most songbirds, many types of lizards). On their own, have students research their species to find ages of at least five different milestones, which they can compare to human development. For example, at what age does a chimpanzee infant take its first steps compared to when a human infant takes its first steps? At what age does a puppy wean compared to a typical human infant? At what age do lions usually make their first kill? This can be assigned to be completed individually or in small groups. Have students present their comparisons to the class.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Can Psychology Be a Real Science?

Most beginning students in psychology bring to the course the misconception that psychology research is generally unscientific in nature. Students readily accept the notion that physics, chemistry, and biology are scientific disciplines; however, they find it difficult to accept the fact that psychological research can also be scientific. A lecture can be developed that sets forth the idea of the scientific method (i.e., observation, prediction via a hypothesis, confirmation or disconfirmation, revision of hypothesis as needed, development of overarching theory). The lecture can include a discussion of how the scientific method can be applied to one or more of the “hard science” disciplines. The lecture can then include a discussion of how hypotheses in psychological research can be tested in much the same way as the hard sciences.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Ways of Knowing

Another way to engage students is to develop a lecture on how we acquire information. Most students have difficulty understanding why they need to know research methods in order to study psychology. Many students have the idea that psychology is all “common sense.”

There are at least six ways to acquire knowledge: five unscientific and one scientific. The unscientific ways are tenacity, intuition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism. Tenacity involves persistent superstition—in other words, beliefs are reacted to as if they are fact. Intuition is not based on any known reasoning or inferring process (e.g., psychics). Authority involves acquiring information from a respected source (e.g., a person or document). The authority is often well known in one area, maybe even an expert, but is often not an expert in the area in which he or she is providing information. Rationalism involves gaining knowledge through reasoning processes and assumes that valid knowledge is acquired if correct reasoning processes are employed. Empiricism touts knowledge from experience. If something is experienced, it must be valid and true. Each of the unscientific methods has obvious problems, but we use them every day to acquire information. We then use this information to make decisions that influence our lives and the lives of people around us.

The scientific method or process has two major advantages. It uses objective empirical observation that should be independent of opinion or bias. It also has a method for establishing the superiority of one belief or theory over another. The theory that is more precise (operational definitions), more parsimonious, and more testable is deemed as the better theory. Skepticism, the philosophical belief that all knowledge is questionable, is assumed. No scientific fact can be known with 100% certainty, which is why we never use the word prove to refer to research findings in psychology.

It is often helpful to give the class examples of questions and ask them where they would seek the information to inform their answers. For example, what is the cause of the medical symptoms I am experiencing? What kind of car should I buy? What is the best reading program to teach children to read? How can we reduce the divorce rate? Should antidepressants be prescribed to adolescents? Do video games cause violence?

Section 3 Lecture Launcher/Discussion: Understanding Experiments

To supplement students’ understanding of experiments from Chapter 1, provide them with a visual demonstration by showing a brief (14.58 minutes) and easy-to-understand video titled “Episode 45: Basic Research Design – Part I” by Michael Britt, creator of The Psych Files podcasts (www.thepsychfiles.com). Although the video is not specifically related to developmental psychology, it does include excellent examples that students can understand. The basic terms students should know are presented in the first 7:39 minutes of the video. More detailed terms, such as confound, within-groups design, ANOVA, and noise are found in the latter half of the video. After watching the video, you may want to provide students with another example of an experiment but one that is related to topics of interest in developmental psychology.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect

In addition to the material presented in Chapter 1, Section 3, you may want to introduce the concept of pseudoscience to your students. Ask them about their impression of the so-called Mozart Effect. Most students have heard of the general phenomenon and have seen advertisements and CDs of music or videos “designed to increase your child’s IQ.” Bring in a magazine advertisement and read from it or show a YouTube video clip, touting the merits of the product. Ask students whether they believe it and whether they would buy the product. Probe them by asking what “proof” they would need that the product actually works. Usually, students will begin to question the merits of the product, at which point you can discuss the actual psychological findings of this moneymaking gimmick by summarizing the work of Steele, Bass, and Crook (1999).

Pseudoscience quite literally means “false science.” The claims may sound scientific, but they are not empirically supported (Shermer, 1997). Furthermore, pseudoscience appears to use scientific methods and tries to give that “science-y” impression. Some characteristics of pseudoscience include the following:

1. It associates itself with true science.

2. It relies on, and accepts, anectdotal evidence.

3. It sidesteps disproof.

a. Any possible outcome is explained away.

b. A theory is not a good theory if it can explain everything, because it can never make specific predictions.

4. It dangerously reduces complexity to simplicity (to a consumer society).

Ask students why the Mozart Effect would be considered pseudoscience based on the four aforementioned characteristics. Have students give other examples of possible pseudoscience, such as graphology, palmistry, aromatherapy, and, quite arguably, Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR).

Michael Britt has an excellent website (www.thepsychfiles.com) that provides two great podcasts on the Mozart Effect as well as background information on this topic.

Sources:

Shermer, M. (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies; Born to rebel: birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. Complexity, 2(6), 33–38.

Steele, K. M., Bass, K. E., & Crook, M. D. (1999). The mystery of the Mozart effect: Failure to replicate. Psychological Science, 10, 366–369.

Section 3 Activity: Correlational and Experimental Research

Many students have difficulty understanding the difference between correlational research and experimental research. It might be useful to walk the class through an example in which both kinds of research are illustrated with the same variables. Two examples that could be used this way are the relationship between violent television viewing and aggression, and the relationship between similarity and liking. In both examples, either variable could plausibly be caused by the other (or by some third factor), so the step up from correlational to experimental research, where causality can be determined, can be seen as useful. Spend some time discussing how psychologists must be ingenious to turn concepts such as “liking” into measurable variables (this will help students appreciate the scientific process). As examples, you can present actual studies that have been done in these two areas. Byrne (1971) discusses extensive research on the influence of similarity on attraction, and Liebert and Sprafkin (1988) discuss the effects of television on children.

Sources:

Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.

Liebert, R., & Sprafkin, J. (1988). The early window: Effects of television on children and youth. New York: Pergamon Press.

Section 3 Activity: Designing a Research Study

An appropriate collaborative learning activity for this chapter on research methods is to allow students the opportunity to design their own research. Arrange students into groups. Tell them their assignment is to design a study in some area related to human development. Some suggestions are: What foods do infants prefer? Why are children aggressive? Why do adolescents like to hang out at malls? What methods of quitting smoking are most effective? Why do we fall in love? Does having a pet increase the well-being of elderly people? Groups can brainstorm some ideas of their own. You may use Handout 1-1 to guide the activity.

CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

The exercises on Handout 1-2 can be used as individual assignments. They translate well for online discussion boards. All three or any one of the exercises can be used in a small-group format. Students might bring in brief media examples, or you might provide one. Likewise, groups can choose or be assigned a decision they must make for the “Bringing It Home” exercise, do the research as homework, and process the exercise in groups.

Additional Sources:

Huff, D. (1991). How to lie with statistics. New York: Penguin. This is often cited as one of the best brief books on thinking critically about statistics.

An astounding and informative audio resource for students, Stochasticity, can be found at Radio Lab (http://www.radiolab.org/) using a general search engine. The focus is on randomness and the likelihood that even the most unlikely events occur. It is particularly helpful for reducing magical thinking about statistically improbable events.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS

See the list of additional resources in each section.

Revel VIDEOS

Chapter Introduction: A Cultural Approach to Human Development

The Demographic Divide

Natural Selection

Research Focus: Darwin’s Diary: A Case Study

Professor of Psychology

JOURNAL PROMPTS AND SHARED WRITING QUESTIONS

Journal Prompts

A Demographic Profile of Humanity

Can you think of some ways that a high ratio of children-to-adults in a country might influence psychological development?

End-of-Chapter Activities

Reflect on your own development. How did you become the person you are now? This chapter has introduced a variety of dimensions such as culture, developmental stage, ethnicity, gender, SES, and globalization. Which of these dimensions, and potentially others too, are most important to how you have developed?

Shared Writing Questions

A Demographic Profile of Humanity

What kinds of public policy changes might be necessary in the United States between now and 2050 to adapt to nearly 100 million more immigrants and a rise in the proportion of Latinos to 30%?

Scientific Conceptions

Based on your own experiences, which theory of human development do you consider more valid, Erikson’s or Freud’s?

Research Measurements, Designs, and Ethics

Of the three hypothetical studies described here, which do you think would be likely to receive IRB approval and which not? 

Handout 1-1

Design a Research Study

Design a research study related to human development. In doing so, address the following:

1. What is your research problem or question?

2. Are you seeking to establish cause and effect (an experimental design) or looking for a relationship between variables (a correlational design)?

3. What are your variables? Is there a need to identify one as the independent variable and one as the dependent variable? If so, what are they? How are the variables operationally defined?

4. What is your hypothesis?

5. What major developmental design are you using? Note whether you are incorporating longitudinal, cross-sectional, cross-sequential, or cross-cultural methods.

6. Who is your population? How did you draw your sample? Will you have an experimental and control group? If so, how are subjects assigned to each group?

7. What data-gathering strategies and/or “treatment” will you use?

Design a Research Study, page 2

8. Describe, diagram, or explain your research procedure.

9. What do you think your results will be?

10. How did you minimize bias in your study?

Handout 1-2

How We Study Human Development: Fools for Numbers

Understanding the Concept

Can you read a magazine, watch the news, or visit a website without having some sort of statistic thrown at you? Everywhere people try to persuade us with numbers. In science, business, and medicine—indeed, in most of our endeavors today, we look to statistical operations to help us determine how valid, reliable, and predictive information is. We live in a world that demands we understand statistics well enough to make good decisions and to be more foolproofed!

Statistics is a field of mathematics that states information in numerical terms so it can be organized, analyzed, and interpreted. Statistics was originally considered the science of the king. In the 1700s, “statistics” referred to the counting of goods, people, and soldiers available to the king. Today, the science of the king belongs to all of us and is still used to summarize past or present realities and to predict future possibilities.

For this exercise, we will cover a basic statistic. It involves some property I own in Florida. I have a great deal for you on a house. The average income of people living in the area is $500,000 a year. I need to sell right now and I really like you, so you may buy my house for just $90,000!

Unfortunately for you, there are a few millionaires with exclusive estates nearby. Why unfortunate? I added their income to figure that average of $500,000. Your nearest neighbors have incomes averaging $20,000 a year and live in old trailer homes, just like the one you paid me $90,000 for. Did I lie to you? (A similar example can be found in Darrell Huff’s great book, How to Lie with Statistics.)

Something as simple as an average can be misleading. Knowing the range, median, and mode before we make decisions based on averages can save us from serious errors. Start noticing how often you are given just an average when numbers come your way.

Who is included in an average matters, too. A national average may not tell you much about your area of the country. A regional average would be more representative, a state average even more so, but a local average would be best if you want to know about your own city.

Critical Thinking Challenge

Look in any media source for an article or advertisement with statistics.

Jot down every statistic given.

Analyze your data (statistics) for missing information.

If it is an average, do you know the range, median, or mode?

If it is a simple count, do you have any information regarding how it was obtained or who it represents?

How might the missing information result in misleading you?

How We Study Human Development: Fools for Numbers, page 2

Mastery Exercise

Use the same data or a new data set you find. In the previous exercise, you thought about missing information that might change the meaning of the data or the inferences you would make from it.

For this exercise, go two steps further:

1. Write down possible reasons the statistics were presented in the way they were. Is the author attempting to convince you to accept a certain belief or take a certain action? If so, what belief or action?

2. Write down what information you would need so that you can be more confident the data represented the situation accurately.

Bringing It Home

Are you about to make a big decision about a purchase, political issue, or school? (If not, pick one you might need to make in the future.) Using the internet, magazines, newspapers, Twitter, and so on, find statistics that support both sides of your decision. Following the steps in the “Use the Concept” and the “Mastery” exercises, list all the statistics you find and identify ways they may be misleading. If you are comparing items, is it easy to do, or are the statistics stated too differently to compare A to B? Did all the statistics you found support the same conclusion? Write about your experience as well as the difficulties you encountered and how those might be overcome in order to make your best decision.