Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood - Comprehensive Notes
Piaget's Approach to Cognitive Development
PIAGET'S THEORY overview
Building Schemes
Adaptation: building schemes through direct interaction with the environment
Assimilation: using current schemes to interpret the world
Accommodation: creating new schemes and adjusting old ones to better fit the environment
Using Assimilation and Accommodation
Cognitive equilibrium: steady, comfortable state in which children assimilate more than they accommodate
Cognitive disequilibrium: state of discomfort and rapid cognitive change in which children shift from assimilation to accommodation
Piagetâs Six Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage
Six substages within this period
Individual differences in rate of progression
Transitions between stages include characteristics of previous and subsequent stages
Cultural variations not considered
Sensorimotor Substages (with key features)
Substage 1: Reflexive schemes (birthâ1 month)
Substage 2: Primary circular reactions (1â4 months): Simple motor habits centered around own body
Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions (4â8 months): Repetition of interesting effects, imitation of familiar behaviors
Substage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8â12 months): Intentional, goal-directed behavior; beginning of object permanence
Substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions (12â18 months): Exploration of object properties through novel actions
Substage 6: Mental representation (18 monthsâ2 years): Internal depictions of objects and events; advanced object permanence (invisible displacement)
Sensorimotor Stage
Core idea: learning occurs through interacting with the physical world; knowledge develops through action
Information Processing
ND Approaches to Cognitive Development
ENCODING, STORAGE, AND RETRIEVAL
Encoding: the process by which information is initially recorded
Storage: the placement of information into memory
Retrieval: the process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness, and used
Information is held for processing in three areas:
Sensory register: briefly stores sights and sounds
Short-term memory store:
Attended-to information is retained briefly and âworkedâ on
Working memory: number of items that can be briefly held in mind while also monitoring or manipulating them
Long-term memory: permanent knowledge base
VYGOTSKY'S THEORY
The Social Context of Early Cognitive Development (1 of 2)
Vygotskyâs Sociocultural Theory
Social and cultural contexts affect how a childâs cognitive world is structured
Complex mental activities develop through joint activities with more mature individuals of their society
Zone of proximal development: tasks too difficult for child to do alone but possible with help of a skilled partner
Scaffolding: promotes learning at all ages
The Social Context of Early Cognitive Development (2 of 2)
Cultural Contexts influence cognitive development dynamics and outcomes
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Social Origins of Make-Believe Play
Greatly extends toddlersâ cognitive and social skills
Taught and scaffolded under guidance of experts: adults or older siblings; cultures vary
Toddlers must be encouraged to participate
Rich cues help distinguish pretend from real acts
When adults participate, toddlersâ make-believe play is more complex and teaches cultural values
SUMMARY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT INFLUENCES
Piaget: Infants and toddlers create new schemes by acting on the physical world
Information processing: Certain skills become better developed as children represent their experiences more efficiently and meaningfully
Vygotsky: Many aspects of cognitive development are socially mediated
PARENT/CAREGIVER'S ROLE IN DEVELOPMENT
Conceptually, caregiving practices influence development through scaffolding, language exposure, and supportive interactions. Caregiving practices, such as responsive interactions and consistent routines, provide a foundation for children to learn and explore their environment, enabling them to develop vital cognitive skills.
UNICEf - Serve and Return: The Heart of Early Learning
Most important interaction with your child is through play; building your baby's brain, though it may feel intimidating, is achievable by engaging in playful interaction.
Parenting is described as more of an art than a science; the early years are crucial because experiences and relationships literally shape brain development.
The early foundation affects all later learning, behavior, physical health, and mental health across a lifetime; its impact cannot be overstated.
The single most important thing a parent can do is to know the child well, read the childâs cues, and engage in serve-and-return interaction.
What is Serve and Return?
Serve and return is a back-and-forth interaction, similar to play, that strengthens brain circuits through mutual responsiveness.
Baby serves: a smile, a coo, a babble, a gesture; the parent returns a response that connects to what the baby did.
Examples:
Baby makes a sound â parent returns the same or a connected sound back.
Baby points to something â parent points to it as well.
The interaction is bidirectional: the baby can initiate (serve) and the parent can initiate (return).
The quality of the response matters more than perfect timing on the first try; with practice, returning becomes easier.
Why Serve and Return Matters
All important early learning happens in the context of play for very young children.
Play is exploration: children try things to see what happens when they do one thing and another result occurs.
Through play, children develop a sense of mastery over the world.
A safe environment with ample opportunities for learning supports this development.
Much of early interaction falls into the serve-and-return category.
Start with the idea that serve-and-return should be easy, friendly, and relaxing.
Everyday Opportunities for Play
Play can occur during routine caregiving tasks:
Feeding
Changing clothes
Bathing
These moments are opportunities for playful interaction and learning between adults and children.
The goal is to weave back-and-forth responsiveness into daily care, not to set aside special âplaytime.â
Building Brain Circuits Through Interaction
In infancy, brain development hinges on social interaction: making eye contact, talking, and responding to the babyâs cues.
Key elements include visual focus, sound, eye contact, and personal connection.
Being sensitive to the babyâs feelings supports foundational emotional development.
Examples of Games and Why They Help
Some activities you might not label as games are actually play:
Peekaboo (covering your face with a cloth and revealing the baby)
"Whereâs baby?" or search-and-find style play
Patty cake and other simple hand games
Common examples mentioned:
Peekaboo: Whereâs baby? Oh, here he is.
Patty cake: classic rhythm-based hand-clapping game.
"How big is baby? So big." (verbal and playful interaction)
The best games create emotional safety, which allows growth and exploration.
When you repeatedly cover your face and reveal the baby, the baby learns that things can disappear and come back and that they still exist; this is a cognitive concept being supported through play.
If a baby keeps wanting to engage in a certain game, thereâs a reason: it signals mastery, enjoyment, and active learning.
Why the Laughter and Repetition Matter
The babyâs laughter during these games stems from both personal interaction and the learning experience of disappearance and return.
Repetition reinforces brain development: the baby is mastering these concepts and genuinely enjoying the learning process.
The underlying message is that the activity is contributing to brain development.
What Does This Mean for Parents?
Reflect on what your baby enjoys doing and observe why that activity is engaging for the baby.
The central answer is practical: these enjoyable activities support brain development.
Your approach should be attuned to the childâs cues and rhythms; responsiveness is key.
Ethical/practical implication: respect the childâs agency, avoid forcing interactions, and adapt to the childâs pace and interests to foster secure, positive learning experiences.
Practical Takeaways
Prioritize serve-and-return in everyday interactions; make it easy, friendly, and low-stress.
Read and respond to your childâs cues rather than imposing rigid agendas.
Use ordinary routines (feeding, dressing, bathing) as opportunities for back-and-forth play.
Build emotional safety through consistent, sensitive, and loving responses.
Remember that parenting is both an art and a science; the goal is to cultivate a responsive relationship that supports the childâs brain development.
Always consider what the child enjoys and why; if the child is engaged, itâs likely contributing to brain growth and learning. Encourage exploration by creating a stimulating environment where the child can safely interact with various objects and stimuli, promoting curiosity and cognitive skills.
Age Windows and Brain Development - THE LANGUAGE OF MUSIC
Early exposure to music benefits a baby's brain development.
Between 6 and 12 years old, studies show children who listen to music have a better overall brain development than children who don't.
The first 3 years are crucial for brain development.
Source speaker: Pediatrician Dr. Pierre Laredo.
Brain Pathways and Synaptic Development
Classical music has been said to open the same pathways in the brain used for spatial reasoning.
Those synaptic formations occur and are stimulated by classical music.
The pathways stimulated by these musical experiences are used for spatial-temporal reasoning, which are the skills needed for math.
Social and Communication Skills
Studies show children who listen to and interact with music have better communication skills.
Those children are more sociable.
Music Type and Behavioral Effects
Calmer music (not pumped up or highly energetic music) tends to soothe the child and reduce over-arousal.
Music can be used as a tool to help manage baby behavior.
The effect described: calmer music helps to soothe behavior rather than stimulating excess activity.
Practical Guidelines for Parents
Recommend singing or playing music for your child.
Ensure the music is calm and the volume is low to protect the baby's hearing.
Practical takeaway: use music as a daily, soothing, interactive activity rather than as a high-volume experience.
Context, Attribution, and Real-World Relevance
Context: Discussion attributed to Dr. Pierre Laredo, a pediatrician.
Reported by Lindsay Breide for Lee Memorial Health System.
Real-world relevance: suggests music exposure as a low-cost, everyday stimulus with potential cognitive, social, and behavioral benefits.
Practical implication: choose calm, engaging musical interactions rather than loud, stimulating music to support development and behavior.
Key Concepts and Terms
Early music exposure
Brain development milestones (e.g., first 3 years)
Synaptic formations
Spatial-temporal reasoning
Spatial reasoning as related to math skills
Calmer vs pumped-up music dynamics
Hearing protection and safe listening practices
Connections to Broader Principles
Links between auditory stimulation and cognitive development align with foundational neuroscience on sensory input shaping neural pathways.
Music as multimodal input (listening + interaction) can influence communication and social skills alongside cognitive growth.
Practical strategy mirrors broader educational guidance: prioritize calm, consistent, low-volume environments for early development.
Ethical and Practical Implications
Practical: emphasize safe listening to avoid potential hearing damage in infants.
Ethical: using music as an intervention tool should be accessible to all families; be cautious of overstating benefits without explicit study details.
Philosophical: highlights the role of everyday cultural activities (music) in shaping developmental trajectories.
Numerical References and Formulas
Age window references: 6 â 12 years old.
Critical early period: 3 years.
No explicit statistical values or equations provided in the transcript beyond these integer references.
Short Takeaways
Music exposure in early life is presented as beneficial for brain development, with specific claims about brain pathways for spatial reasoning and math.
Calmer, low-volume musical interactions are emphasized as supportive for behavior and social skills.
Practical advice centers on singing/playing music calmly and safely for infants and children.
THE ROOTS OF LANGUAGE - LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES
Second half of first year: Distinguishes language sounds, segments speech into word and phrase units
12 months : Says first word
1 ½ - 2 yrs : Combines two words
3 - 5 years old: Forms more complex sentences
6 yrs old: Understands meaning of about 14{,}000 words
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF LANGUAGE: FROM SOUNDS TO SYMBOLS
Prelinguistic communication
Babbling
Infants with hearing impairments
Exposure to speech sounds of a particular language initially do not influence babbling
At 6 months, babbling reflects language of culture
Babbling is distinguishable from other language babbling
Combinations of sounds and gestures are used to communicate
FIRST WORDS
Once an infant starts to produce words, vocabulary increases at a rapid rate
10 - 14 months: first word
15 months: 10 words
18 months: one-word stage ends
16 - 24 months: language explosion, vocabulary increases from 50 to 400 words
Holophrases: one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, whose meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used
FIRST SENTENCES
Created around 8 - 12 months after first words
Indicate understanding of labels and relationships between labels
Often observations rather than demands
Use an order similar to adult speech but with missing words
Telegraphic speech: speech in which words not critical to the message are left out
How Do Babies Become Bilingual?: Infant Language Acquisition and Bilingualism â innate language abilities in infants
Infants are primed to learn language from birth; language is often described as an innate ability, comparable to other basic skills like grasping or sucking.
Babies from bilingual households can grow up fluent in two languages; language learning doesnât require special trainingâjust exposure.
Classic idea: language is something weâre born knowing how to do; this innate capacity supports learning any language given the right input.
Early sound discrimination and perceptual narrowing
In the first months, babies can distinguish very similar sounds, even from foreign languages.
Experimental setup (common in this field): play a sound from a foreign language on loop for a baby around 4 ext{ months} old. When the babyâs interest wanes, switch to a new, similar sound.
Indicator of noticing a difference: babyâs behavior changes, e.g., looking around, sucking more or harder on a pacifier.
By about 12 months (one year old), many babies stop noticing certain non-native sound differences as their brains prune unused connections and focus on their native language sounds.
Mechanism: neural connections related to non-native sounds are weakened while those for native-language sounds are strengthened (neural pruning/neuroplasticity).
Conclusion: early exposure shapes perceptual emphasis; by around the first year, infantsâ brains increasingly tune in to the language theyâve heard most.
Important takeaway: bilingual exposure requires equal exposure to both languages to develop bilingual processing; no special training is necessary.
Myths about bilingual development
Common claim: bilingual kids develop more slowly or have speech delays. Research shows this is not generally true.
The same holds for babies who grow up with one spoken language and one signed language (e.g., English and American Sign Language): they can keep their languages separate thanks to perceptual skills.
By about three years old, children who are exposed to two languages can use perceptual cues to decide which language to speak in different contexts (e.g., speaking English with friends, Cantonese with mom).
When children deliberately switch languages (code-switching), this is a normal skill reflecting language regulation in social contexts.
Code-switching and language regulation
Definition: Code-switching is the intentional switching from one language to another in different social situations.
By around age 3, children can regulate which language to use with different people or settings.
EEG studies of infant language processing (monolingual vs bilingual brains)
Source: University of Washington EEG study comparing monolingual and bilingual infants.
At 6 ext{ months}: infants are exposed to recordings of English and Spanish.
Monolingual babies show a spike on the EEG whenever a mismatched sound occurs (e.g., a Spanish sound among English sounds, or vice versa), indicating they notice a difference.
Bilingual babies do not show this spike, indicating a different processing pattern at this age.
By 10 - 12 months: developmental shift occurs.
Monolingual babiesâ brains respond when a sound in their native language interrupts a string of foreign sounds (but not the reverse).
Bilingual babies shift from not noticing differences to noticing both kinds of mismatches (they become sensitive to both language contexts).
Interpretation: Monolingual brains tend to solidify connections faster to prepare for a single primary language, while bilingual brains stay more flexible and continue adapting to multiple languages at a later stage.
Developmental advantages observed in bilingual infants
A study in the journal Science found that bilingual babies may be better at learning rules and switching between them than monolingual babies.
Example from the study: 1-year-old infants were taught to look at a specific location on a screen when hearing a certain pattern of sounds to reveal a toy; when the pattern changed and the toy location moved, bilingual infants were better at figuring out the new rule and looking in the correct places.
This suggests bilingualism may confer advantages in rule learning and cognitive flexibility early in development.
Cognitive and real-world benefits in adulthood
Across studies, bilingual adults often show:
Better focus and greater ability to switch between tasks (cognitive flexibility).
Slower cognitive decline with aging compared to monolinguals.
Important nuance: these benefits reflect one possible developmental pathway; the brain remains highly plastic, and non-bilingual individuals can still achieve strong cognitive outcomes.
Takeaway: bilingual experience is one route to certain cognitive advantages, but it is not the sole predictor of intelligence or cognitive health.
Connections to broader concepts and real-world relevance
Neuroplasticity: early language exposure shapes neural wiring; pruning and strengthening of connections reflect experience-driven brain development.
Perceptual narrowing: young brains focus on the sounds and patterns of the language environment they are exposed to, filtering out others over time.
Perceptual and cognitive flexibility: exposure to multiple languages may foster flexible rule learning and switching capabilities.
Educational and social implications: supporting early, equal exposure to multiple languages can help children develop bilingual skills without sacrificing development in either language; code-switching is a natural part of bilingual communication.
Key terms and concepts to remember
Innate language ability
Bilingual vs monolingual development
Equal exposure to two languages
Perceptual narrowing and neural pruning
Code-switching
EEG (electroencephalography) and neural mismatches
Neuroplasticity and flexible brain wiring
Rule learning and cognitive switching
Long-term cognitive benefits and aging effects
Numerical references and study details
Ages and time points:
Initial sound exposure test around 4 months
Follow-up observations around 12 months (one year) to assess changes
Early perception changes observed at approximately 6 months
Later development noted around 10 - 12 months
Language switching observed by approximately 3 years old
Experimental stimuli examples include: English vs. Spanish sound streams
Practical takeaways for learners and educators
Exposure matters: ensure infants and children have ample, balanced exposure to both languages to support bilingual development.
Code-switching is a natural, healthy part of bilingual communication and should be viewed as a normal skill rather than a problem.
Bilingualism is associated with cognitive advantages that can persist into adulthood, but a lack of bilingual exposure does not doom cognitive developmentâbrain plasticity supports multiple developmental pathways.
When teaching or learning languages, focusing on meaningful social and communicative contexts can help children correctly assign languages to contexts and speakers.
Additional Notes
Babies can become bilingual if they have adequate exposure to two or more languages during the critical period of language development. That critical period is under the age of 2 years old. This exposure allows them to discern sounds and patterns in multiple languages, facilitating their ability to communicate effectively as they grow. Additionally, research indicates that engaging infants in conversations and introducing varied vocabulary can enhance their bilingual development, making it easier for them to switch between languages as needed. This immersion experience is essential for helping them develop cognitive flexibility and improving their overall linguistic skills.