unit 6 ap hug

Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Unit 6 Big Ideas:

1. How do physical geography and resources impact the presence and growth of cities?

Many of the world’s major cities developed near rivers, lakes, or coastlines because water is essential for drinking, farming, and trade. As for transportation, it is easier when cities have access to navigable waterways or flat terrain; mountainous or desert regions can make construction and expansion more difficult, which limits a city's growth. Furthermore, natural resources like coal, oil, fertile soil, and minerals also attract people and businesses, leading to economic growth. For example, cities such as Pittsburgh developed because of nearby coal and iron deposits that fueled the steel industry, while Houston grew due to its oil industry. However, when natural resources are depleted or industries decline, cities may struggle economically. Also, climate and weather also play a role; cities in temperate regions with good agricultural land tend to thrive, while extreme climates can make life and development more challenging.

2. How are the attitudes, values, and balance of power of a population reflected in the built landscape?

The built environment of a city reflects the attitudes, values, and balance of power within a society. Cities often display cultural, religious, and economic priorities through their buildings, public spaces, and infrastructure. Specifically, societies that prioritize religion will have prominent places of worship, such as churches, mosques, or temples, while cities with strong economies may have towering skyscrapers and advanced transportation systems. Wealth inequality is also visible in urban design, with wealthy areas featuring luxurious homes, modern office buildings, and well-maintained public spaces, while poorer neighborhoods may have overcrowded housing, older infrastructure, and fewer resources. The way political power is distributed also shapes a city’s landscape. Here, capitals often feature large government buildings and monuments, while places with histories of colonization or conflict may have architecture that reflects different periods of rule. Over time, as political and social movements change, cities evolve by renaming streets, removing statues, and redesigning public spaces to reflect new values and priorities.

3. How are urban areas affected by unique economic, political, cultural, and environmental challenges?

Urban areas face complex economic, political, cultural, and environmental challenges that affect their growth and livability. Economic challenges can include high unemployment, poverty, and the rising cost of living, which make housing unaffordable for many residents. Some cities rely on specific industries, and if those industries decline, the local economy suffers. Politically, cities must manage land use, public safety, and infrastructure while balancing the needs of different communities; corruption or poor governance can make it harder to address these issues effectively. As for culture, cities are diverse places where people from different backgrounds interact, which can create both vibrant cultural exchanges and social tensions. Therefore, cities must work to maintain social harmony and preserve historical and cultural landmarks while allowing for modernization. Environmentally, urban areas struggle with pollution, traffic congestion, and the loss of green spaces, all of which impact public health and quality of life. Climate change also poses significant risks, particularly to coastal cities facing rising sea levels and extreme weather events. To address these challenges, cities must invest in sustainable infrastructure, public transportation, and environmental conservation while ensuring economic and social stability for their residents.

6.1 & 6.2: The Origin and Influences of Urbanization & Cities Across the World

• Permanent Settlements were the earliest settlements, or origins for many cities. 

  • Permanent settlements

    • Agricultural villages and development near resources began the development of cities. For a dramatic social change for people to be less and less involved in daily agricultural activities, it requires an agricultural surplus that results in population growth and the emergence of socio economic stratification. 

      • Agricultural Surplus

        • The development of agricultural methods consisting of crop yields that are sufficient to feed more people than the farmer and his or her family, or other than subsistence farming, was essential to the creation of cities. 

          • Needs to support a much larger population. 

          • Allows other villagers to focus on different occupations other than agriculture, benefitting different aspects of a city (urbanization).

      • Socioeconomic stratification

        • Structuring of society into distinct socioeconomic classes, including leadership (such as a government or ruling class) that exert some measure of control over goods and people. 

          • Through the growth of villages, the social structure and economic transactions became even more complex. So, people need some support system to begin the urbanization process. 

        • First urban revolution refers to the agricultural and socioeconomic innovations that led to the rise of the earliest cities. 

  • Urban Hearth areas are regions in which the world’s first cities evolved, specifically in distinct regions such as Mesopotamia and the Nile River valley. Overtime, cities got larger and began to grow as the population grew, natural resources flourished, and business grew, which required transportation of goods, services, and housing to accommodate for the growing population. 

• Early societies choose locations for the villages that eventually became cities according to the site and situation. 

  • Site is the absolute location of a place on earth. 

    • Includes physical features. 

      • Tells us that cities originated in areas with sources of water for their crops, and as they became cities, water became important for both transportation and sanitation. 

        • Importance of water to humans and cities. 

  • Situation refers to the relative location of a place or the location of a place in reference to its surrounding features, places of human activities, or its regional position with reference to other places. 

    • Changes overtime.

      • The significance of the river that originated the city might become less important after the postindustrial era, where there are much more advanced technological inventions. 

• Societies mainly diffused their techniques and ideas associated with urban life to other areas, whether through trade, ocean voyages, or conquest. 

• Patterns of urbanization are influenced by the migration of people from rural areas to cities, and the natural population increase. 

  • Rural-to-urban migration

    • Capitalism is an economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit rather than owned and run by the state. 

      • As industrialization took place in Europe and North America, people moved to cities from rural areas and from other countries to fill cities’ needs for a large workforce. 

        • In China, the policies of communism led to a state policy reform which caused rural workers to willingly move from the countryside to China’s booming industrial cities, where there are more opportunities for them.

        • In Africa and Asia, people leave their rural villages and migrate to cities in search of better economic and social opportunities. 

          • Others leave due to centrifugal forces within their countries: civil wars, natural disasters, climate change, or the size of their land by corrupt governments. 

• Transportation and Communication

  • Innovations such as railroads, streetcars, trolleys, light rail systems, airplanes, buses, and subways have shaped & reshaped the layout and size of cities and their surroundings overtime. 

    • The automobile had the most profound impact on cities. 

      • Increased personal mobility. 

  • The invention of the telegraph allowed for increased communication. 

    • The telephone. 

  • Through these major inventions, geographical differences caused no more problems in communication between countries/regions. 

• Economic Development

  • The second urban revolution is the industrial innovations in mining and manufacturing that led to increased urban growth. 

    • Fundamentally reshaped cities, both spatially and in terms of their social, cultural, political, and economic functions. 

      • Brought on the notion of urban land as a source of income. 

        • Proximity to the city center + pedestrian traffic added economic value to the land. 

          • Areas closest to a river or a harbor also increased land value. 

    • Ability to pay determined where one could live, and the city’s residential areas became segregated by economic class. 

      • Wealthy people lived in desirable neighborhoods. 

      • Those without money lived in less developed areas of the city (slums, etc.). 

  • As industrialization progressed, a downtown defined by economic activity emerged. 

    • Expanded and evolved into specialized districts. 

• Government Policies

  • Cities’ governing bodies have existed since the earliest cities formed. 

    • Early leaders took charge either through consensus or force. 

      • Responsible for the organization of agricultural surplus (storage, distribution, etc.). 

        • As cities industrialized, the city’s infrastructure, water resources, sewage, and garbage disposal all became increasingly important to manage. 

  • For change as the city grows, the government often issues redevelopments for some districts, making sure the space is used more efficiently. 

• Categorizing cities based on quantitative data (size)

  • A metropolis is a very large and densely populated city, often the capital or major city of a country or region, such as New York City. 

    • A metropolitan area is usually quite bigger than a city because it includes one or several urban areas, with their accompanying suburbs and the rural areas economically and culturally connected with the city. 

  • Micropolitan statistical areas are areas which have one or more urban clusters of at least 10,000 but less than 50,000 people as their cores. 

  • Towns are settlements that are smaller and less complex than cities, but they are still self-sufficient. 

    • Often have a CBD. 

    • Have residential and nonresidential land uses: government buildings, parks, and businesses. 

  • Suburbs are populated areas on the outskirts of a city. 

    • Residential community with it's own government. 

    • Intentionally developed residential communities on the periphery of a large town/city. 

  • Metropolitan statistical areas are areas each with at least one urbanized area with at least 50,000 people at its core. 

    • Defined by the U.S. Census Bureau. 

    • Composed of a central county + adjacent outlying counties that are socially and economically integrated with the central county (measures through commuting volumes). 

• World Urbanization Pattern

  • An urbanization rate is the percentage of a nation’s population living in towns and cities. 

    • The World Bank estimates that most of the urban growth in the world today is occurring in the developing world. 

• Megacities & Metacities 

  • Metacities are cities with a regional population of over 20 million people. 

  • Megacities are cities with a population of over 10 million people. 

  • Includes not only the city itself, but also the surrounding metropolitan areas. 

  • Classified strictly on the size of population. 

• Suburbanization, Sprawl, and Decentralization

  • Suburbanization is the movement of people from urban core areas to the surrounding outskirts of a city, which began in the 19th century, and flourished in the 20th. 

    • First suburbs were streetcar suburbs. 

      • Grew close to the urban central business district (CBD), where most business took place. 

      • Developed with commuting in mind. 

    • The resulting pattern of the connection between commuting, the invention of automobiles, and suburbanization became known as sprawl. 

      • The tendency of cities to grow outward in an unchecked manner. 

        • Notable in automobile cities, where their shape and size are dictated and almost require individual automobile ownership. 

          • Through the growth of suburbs, many corporations began to decentralize themselves. 

            • Shifted their departments/operations to “branch offices” in suburban areas, closer to their workforce. 

• Edge Cities

  • Often a distinctly American phenomenon, these cities are a concentration of business, shopping and entertainment that developed in the suburbs, outside of a city’s traditional downtown or CBD. 

    • Often has five characteristics: 

      • Over 5 million square feet of office space

      • Over 600k square feet of retail space. 

      • Population that increases every morning, and decreases in the afternoon (more workplaces, less homes)

      • Status as an “end” destination. 

      • A history of not resembling a city three years prior to its development. 

• Boomburbs

  • A place with more than 100,00 residents that is not a core city in a metropolitan area; a large suburb with its own government. 

    • Must have maintained 10 percent or more of population growth or more in recent decades.

      • Found throughout the United States. 

      • Have been shifts in development in recent years. 

        • Shift from suburban office parks of the early boomburbs to a more downtown like compact, mixed-use development. 

          • Mixed use areas created through infill development, which is the building of new retail, business, or residential spaces on vacant or underused parcels in developed areas. 

• Exurbs

  • Semi Rural district located beyond the suburbs that is often inhabited by well-to-do families. 

    • Usually near farmland, beaches, or mountains. 

    • More spread out and less walkable than cities and many suburbs. 

  • It is difficult to rely on a car living in the exurbs compared to the suburbs since it is more isolated. 

  • Technology is a driving force behind the development of exurbs. 

    • Makes it easier for people to work from home, avoiding a daily commute into the city. 

    • Innovations in automation make more goods and services, including education and health care, available farther from the city. 

Topic 6.3: Cities and Globalization

• World Cities

  • Throughout history, cities have been the centers of the political and economic power in the world. By the 16th century, more cities played key roles as centers of trade or the seats of power in colonizing nations.

  • 17 & 18th centuries: European cities (London, Amsterdam, Paris, and Rome) were influential cities. As industrialization progressed, cities grew larger and expanded, becoming more powerful centers of decision making. 

  • Modern world cities are cities that have become the command and control centers of the global economy. 

    • They have the headquarters of multinational corporations, international service providers (banks, stock exchanges), the offices of giant media companies, and important economic and business services. 

  • Influential cities share multiple characteristics: cultural diversities, cultural institutions, such as museums and symphonies, hipness, accessibility, the ability to attract talented individuals, and a dedication to environmental quality. 

• Economic Power and World Cities

  • Rise of the global cosmopolitan class. 

    • Their population moves from place to place. 

  • The number of individuals with high net worth in a particular city indicates a spatial concentration of economic power. 

• Gated Communities

  • Tastes and needs of the global cosmopolitan class have shaped the world city in particular ways, including the development of highly secured resident enclaves--gated communities. 

    • Located within the bounds of cities but are privately governed. 

    • Have their own services, own oversight board, and own amenities. 

    • Have walls or fences surrounding them. 

  • Can lead to rising income inequality and fear, trying to shut out the lower classes from their residential spaces and from their urban governance processes. 

• Connections and World Cities

  • Drive globalization through the networks and links in transportation services, communication systems, and businesses services. 

  • Transportation services

    • World cities are hubs of efficient and modern transportation services. 

      • Cities were built on major waterways & have harbors, and well-developed ports that can handle container ships & massive cruise ships. 

    • All world cities have major international airports & cargo planes flying domestically and internationally. 

    • Many world cities have high-speed railway systems that carry people rapidly and efficiently from the international airport into and around other cities.

  • Communication systems 

    • World cities have advanced communication systems that provide immediate access to information. 

      • Include influential media organizations that provide fast breaking news (local & international), and information services. 

  • Business services

    • Services serve as links to the corporate headquarters of international companies. 

    • We find large organizations in world cities (WHO, UN, and UNESCO). 

      • World cities have large pools of talent and many employment opportunities for highly educated people.  

Topic 6.4: The Size and Distribution of Cities

• Urban systems

  • A set of independent cities or urban places connected by networks. 

    • Territories within a nation, state, or province that are usually organized in a pattern of towns and cities plus their hinterlands. 

      • Makes up the network that carries goods, services, ideas, and money & labor around the territory. 

• Urban hierarchy refers to a ranking of cities, with the largest and most powerful cities at the top of the hierarchy. 

  • Rank-size rule. 

    • States that the population of a settlement is inversely proportional to its rank in the urban hierarchy. 

    • More common in developed countries than in the developing world, where the urban pattern most often follows the primate city rule. 

  • Primate city rule. 

    • A primate city is a city that is much larger than any other city in a country, and it dominates over the country’s economic, political, and cultural life. 

    • To follow the rule means to have the largest city have more than twice as many as the second largest city. 

      • Most developing countries are dominated by a primate city, which is often a former center of colonial power. 

      • Also common in countries that were colonial powers. 

    • Countries that have dominant primate cities can often have difficulty providing services to people who live some distance from the city. 

      • Therefore, in developing countries, where they do not have as much access to  automobiles or convenient transportation, accessing medical facilities or other services can be difficult. 

        • With the rank-size rule, the people have some degree of convenient access throughout the city. 

• Central place theory

  • A model that attempts to understand why cities are located where they are, and it is developed by Walter Christaller. 

    • Central places are settlements that make certain types of products and services available to consumers, and the theory explains how central places are organized in hierarchical systems. 

  • Christaller based his theory on five assumptions:

    • The surface of a region is flat with no physical barriers. 

    • Soil quality is the same everywhere

    • Population and purchasing power are evenly distributed

    • The region has uniform transportation networks that permit direct travel from each settlement to the others. 

    • From any given place, any good or service can be sold in all directions out to a certain distance. 

  • Believed that cities are primarily economic centers, where their main purpose was to distribute goods and services to people who are willing to travel certain distances to acquire them.  

  • People are often willing to travel much longer distances to obtain specialized or costly high-order goods and services. 

• The Hierarchy of Central Spaces: Place Order, Threshold, and Range

  • According to Christaller, services or businesses in these smaller urban places have a lower threshold, which is the number of people required to support a business. They also have a smaller range, which is the distance people will travel to acquire a good or service. 

  • Because people are willing to travel further to obtain high-order goods and services, services in big cities have a larger range and a higher threshold because people do not purchase expensive high-order goods as often. 

  • Although this model does offer some degree of insight into the distribution of large urban centers in the United States today, the modern urban system does not closely match the hexagonal pattern in Christaller’s theory. 

• The Gravity Model

  • A mathematical model that attempts to predict how places will interact. 

  • Suggests that the closer two places are, the more they will influence each other. 

    • Urban planners sometimes use this model to study migration and to plan transportation systems. 

  • Cities and regions do not need to be in close geographic proximity to have a great deal of interaction. 

  • However, due to the rapid advancements in modern technology, the gravity model is becoming less and less relevant. With the internet and ordering items online, distance between one’s home and the location of the goods do not matter as much. However, distribution and logistics are still important. 

6.5: The Internal Structure of Cities

• Burgess Concentric Zone Model

  • A model of a city’s internal organization developed by E.W. Burgess organized in five concentric rings that model the arrangement of different residential zones radiating outward from a CBD. 

    • Assume that, like organisms, cities must grow, and people are almost universally able to achieve upward mobility. 

    • Five rings are the CBD, zone of transition, zone of independent workers' homes, middle-class residences, and the commuters’ zone. 

      • Believed that new migrants moved into the low quality homes in the zone of transition, which pushed longer-established groups to migrate toward the independent workers’ homes and eventually the suburbs (zones 4 & 5). 

  • Determined that business would locate in the CBD, where the land is expensive due to the profit and income generated from the land uses. 

• Hoyt Sector Model

  • A model of a city’s internal organization, developed by Homer Hoyt, that focuses on transportation and communication as the drivers of the city’s layout.

  • Assumed that the high-cost residential areas will grow outward from the CBD along major transportation and commuter routes. 

  • Highest income groups live in zone 5.

    • New homes on large plots of land located along transportation lines. 

  • Middle income housing on smaller plots of land in suburbs clusters around the residential area of the wealthy. 

  • Areas of low income workers are located between the manufacturing sectors and middle-income sections of the city. 

  • Marked by growth outward. 

• Multiple-Nuclei Model

  • A model of a city’s internal organization, developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ulman, showing residential districts organized around several nodes (nuclei) rather than one central business district. 

    • As people moved farther out from the city center and more highways were built, businesses and services established nodes away from the CBD. 

    • Developed as new CBD were being formed. 

• Galactic City (Peripheral) Model

  • A model of a city’s internal organization in which the central business district remains central, but multiple shopping areas, office parks, and industrial districts are scattered throughout the surrounding suburbs and linked by metropolitan expressway systems. 

    • Around the mid 1970s, more Americans were employed in suburban areas than in central cities as edge cities and the number of business parks and industrial sectors increased out of the central city.

• Bid-Rent Theory

  • Land rent (or cost) near the city center is higher than land rent farther away. 

  • In this case, we pay attention to the usefulness of a place for specific groups and its accessibility to those groups. 

  • The theory assumes that the city is built on a flat plain with no physical features or barriers that affect transportation or utility. 

    • Accessibility decreases steadily with distance from the city center. 

    • Utility will also decrease with distance, but at different rates or different land uses. 

• Latin American City Model

  • A model of the internal structure of the Latin American city developed by Ernst Griffin and Larry Ford. 

    • Reveals the extreme difference between areas for the privileged classes and areas for people living in extreme poverty. 

  • Model is a combination of concentric zones and radial sectors.

  • Has two parts: a traditional market sector that sells everyday goods and a more modern CBD sector that focuses on primary businesses, entertainment venues, and employment. 

• Southeast Asian City Model

  • T.C. McGee developed this model based off of the internal organization of port cities in Southeast Asia. 

    • Found that the focal point of these cities was not a CBD, but rather the old colonial port zone with surrounding commercial districts, the alien and Western commercial zones. 

  • Government activities radiate outward from the port zone. 

• Sub-Saharan African City Model

  • Includes African & Islamic cities in North Africa and East Africa. 

    • Often Western with elements of European and American models, including CBDs with high-rise buildings and sprawling upper-income suburbs. 

  • Carry the imprint of European colonial powers, which laid out the urban centers in cities of the interior and in ports along the coasts. 

  • Likely to have 3 CBDs. 

    • Colonial CBD.

      • Place for informal markets and a transitional business center where commerce is conducted from curbside, temporary stalls or more permanent storefronts. 

    • Traditional CBD.

      • A zone of traditional one-story buildings. 

    • Market zone. 

      • Open-air, informal, and essential to the city’s residents. 

6.6: Density and Land-Use

• Density Gradient changes the farther you move away from the CBD.

  • A gradual change in the density of an urban area from the center to the periphery.  

• According to the Bid-Rent theory, the closer we get to the CBD, the more expensive land gets. The farther away we are, the cheaper the land is. 

  • Has to do with the availability of the land & amount of demand for the land. 

    • Closer we get to the CBD, the more people there are. Because there is more land, there is less space, resulting in higher prices. 

      • Densely populated cities often have skyscrapers and buildings that go upwards, instead of outward buildings, which are often clustered together. 

        • Results in taller buildings with a smaller lot size and more mixed-use buildings. 

• Mixed-Use Buildings & Spatial Layout of Skyscrapers

  • Oftentimes, multi-story buildings have apartments on the upper floors and retail stores/businesses/offices on the street level, with underground parking. 

    • Retail stores are found on the street level, which makes it more convenient for shoppers to come in and out of the store.

    • Apartments are located higher so that they do not have to deal with the sounds of the busy streets in high-density areas, and enjoy the view of the city. 

• High-Density Areas

  • People who live in high-density areas often rely on more public transportation.

  • Closer to different goods and services. 

  • More likely to have a larger variety of goods and services at their disposal. 

  • Can create a unique cultural landscape and vibrant communities that might offer more socioeconomic opportunities for the residents of the city--if the city invests in public transportation and urban planning. 

    • If not, the city can often see food deserts and a lack of economic and social opportunities for residents. 

• Medium Density Areas

  • Buildings begin to shift to low-rise apartments, and more family homes begin to appear. 

  • Often close to high density areas so they still have limited space. 

  • Have more of a suburban feel. 

  • Residential homes remain in close proximity to residential areas. 

  • Have more diversity in the different types of homes: townhomes, duplexes, triplexes, and single-family homes all in one neighborhood. 

• Low Density Areas

  • Often single-family homes or a few low-rise apartment buildings. 

  • Average lot size is much larger compared to lot sizes in high density areas.

    • More buildings are built horizontally, and not upward. 

    • More green spaces. 

  • Larger roadways and parking lots. 

  • Require more land for the same number of residents as high density areas.

    • Leads to increase commute times. 

    • Larger dependence on personal vehicles.

  • Lack of public transportation. 

• Examples of Different Urban Layouts

  • Large skyscrapers are common in large urban areas in the United States.

  • In European cities, we see cities that place height restrictions on buildings to create a specific city landscape. 

    • Often they tend to have more public transportation. 

    • Public space is designed for community interaction in their urban areas. 

• Urban Sprawl & Changing of Land Use Patterns

  • Due to advancements in transportation and technology & new interstate systems, people can live farther away from the CBD, and still have access to the different goods and services that they need. 

    • Changing how land is being used, and is impacting high, medium, and low density areas in countries.

      • United States: people are moving away from the CBD and relocating to edge cities and the suburban area.

        • Leads to different businesses to opt for a lower lot size in a lower density area. 

          • Businesses are following these workers and customers to cheaper land that is farther away.  

  • Results in urban sprawl.

    • The unrestricted growth and expansion of an urban or suburban area into the surrounding countryside. 

6.7: Infrastructure

• Infrastructure refers to the physical and organizational structures and facilities that are needed for a society, system, or organization to function. 

  • Examples include power plants, electrical grids, roads, public transportation, highways, education institutions, hospitals, internet, etc. 

• Having quality and accessible infrastructure is key to a successful society. 

  • Societies that invest in their infrastructure and maintain it, often see increased economic development and a higher standard of living. 

• Reshaping the CBD

  • Cities generally feature Central Business Districts (CBD), where historically large retail stores were prevalent.

    • Nowadays, many of these stores have closed and relocated from high-density areas to more middle and low-density locations.

  • This shift began with the establishment of the interstate system that connected cities across the United States.

    • The interstate system facilitated easier and faster travel between various cities.

  • As a result, Urban Sprawl occurred, enabling more individuals to move from high-density surroundings to middle and low-density regions. As a result, those residing outside the urban core can commute to the city for work or commerce due to efficient road systems that permit swift travel in and out of urban areas.

  • As individuals migrated away from CBDs, businesses also followed suit, choosing to pursue their customers by acquiring cheaper land located further from the central business district.

  • Currently, we observe smaller stores dispersed throughout suburbs, boomburbs, and edge cities, which was made possible by interstate and road networks.

    • Serves as an illustration of how a city's infrastructure directly impacts the spatial patterns of socioeconomic growth.

• Impact of the Internet

  • The internet has transformed where people choose to live as cities strive to connect more homes with high-speed internet.

    • Increased connectivity enables residents to work, shop, and participate in leisure activities from home.

  • Provides access to a variety of goods and services worldwide, and investments in urban infrastructure.

  • High-speed internet not only allows for remote work and communication, but also enables quicker and more efficient access to information.

    • Investments in internet infrastructure can benefit residents in underserved regions, with improved connectivity offering Telehealth services to those in rural or traditionally underserved areas.

  • Emergence of new businesses

  • Shared innovative ideas 

  • Increased access to various goods and services

• Negative Environmental Impacts

  • Developments in road networks and internet access allow individuals to reside at greater distances from urban centers.

    • Fosters suburban expansion 

    • Converting farmland and green spaces into concrete landscapes, broadening the urban footprint.

  • Spatial restructuring typically results in a heightened dependence on automobiles, leading to increased air pollution and traffic congestion.

  • With residents more dispersed, they tend to spend longer commuting between locations.

  • In contrast, high-density areas more frequently witness residents relying on public transportation due to closer proximity to required goods and services, resulting in shorter travel times and decreased dependence on vehicles.

• Public Transportation

  • Cities aim to extend public transportation services beyond the urban core into suburban regions.

  • This expansion will elevate the operational costs of city services and contribute to urban sprawl.

• Increasing Costs

  • As cities continue to grow and expand, the costs associated with infrastructure rise, presenting new challenges.

  • As infrastructure endures exposure to the elements and increased usage, it will ultimately require maintenance or replacement.

    • This situation further intensifies the financial responsibilities of cities, as they must manage both maintenance costs and expenses related to their ongoing expansion.

• Failing Infrastructure 

  • Should cities fail to invest in necessary infrastructure or maintain aging systems, society's overall efficiency may deteriorate.

    • Insufficient maintenance of old infrastructure could lead to catastrophic failures.

      • Infrastructure failures can trigger serious disruptions across different life sectors and may even result in injury or loss of life.

• Cities, States, & Infrastructure

  • Generates political and economic discussions among residents and various governmental levels, including cities, counties, states, and national entities seeking influence over these choices.

• Investing in New Infrastructure 

  • Cities must consistently allocate resources for new infrastructure development to accommodate evolving populations and urban landscapes.

  • Adjustments to road configurations may be essential to suit newer vehicles, while public transport systems need to extend to link high-density zones with other parts of the city to solve traffic issues.

    • Emerging technologies, such as electric vehicles, are reshaping infrastructure throughout the nation.

      • Cities are increasingly investing in initiatives that integrate more charging stations and advanced green technology.

  • Enhancing this infrastructure enables electric automobiles to become a more feasible option for residents, contributing to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, improving air quality, and fostering economic growth in diverse areas.

• Population Changes & Public Services  

  • Population growths in societies require cities to enhance their public services, including healthcare, education, police protection, fire safety, waste removal, water and sewer services, and electricity, among others.

    • Crucial for ensuring that all residents can achieve a high standard of living.

  • Cities that neglect infrastructure growth may face deteriorating road systems, escalating traffic issues, overcrowded educational institutions and healthcare facilities, strained law enforcement and emergency services, unstable electrical grids, contaminated water sources, and informal settlements that lack economic opportunities.

  • Cities that invest in the growth and upkeep of their infrastructure can deliver an improved array of goods and services to their citizens, enhancing both economic and social possibilities for everyone.

6.8: Urban Sustainability

• Sustainability

  • The ability of a society to meet the wants and needs of today’s people without preventing future generations from being able to meet their wants and needs. 

• Urban Sustainability

  • Sustainability refers to an urban environment that promotes sustainable socioeconomic growth while also promoting environmental sustainability.

• Economic Sustainability

  • Cities that allow for economic growth are open to all residents. 

    • Reduces the negative impact on the environment. 

  • Cities that strive for economic sustainability tend to support small businesses, entrepreneurs, and local development that strive to create socially and economically responsible businesses.

• Social Sustainability

  • Social sustainability is ensuring that the form of making a city has safe and inclusive communities for all residents.

    • Have access to affordable housing, education, and healthcare. 

  • Often uses urban planning to create healthy, sustainable cities, promoting both economic and social opportunity for all. 

• Sustainability & Urban Life

  • Revolves around the goal of having a high standard of living without compromising the ability of future generations to experience the same benefit. 

• Achieving Sustainability

  • Utilizing urban design. 

    • Through initiatives such as using zoning policies, incorporating mixed land use developments into urban areas. 

      • Mixed Use areas allow for the mixing of commercial, residential, and sometimes industrial zones. 

        • Helps create neighborhoods where residents can work, live, and entertain themselves instead of having to commute. 

  • Mixed land use promotes walkable cities.

    • Cities that are designed to decrease the residents’ driving time and increase the amount of people that walk or bike to their destinations. 

      • Utilizing smart growth policies. 

        • Seeks to promote compact walkable cities, mixed-use buildings, and zoning changes to reduce urban sprawl. 

• Transit-Oriented Development

  • Prioritize transit oriented development. 

    • A planning approach that aims to encourage the development of mixed-use areas and public transportation. 

      • Strategically locating public transit stations throughout a city. 

        • Decrease in traffic = more public transportation. 

        • Makes the city more walkable. 

• Greenbelts

  • Undeveloped areas of land surrounding an urban area. 

    • Intentionally left undeveloped to preserve the environment, limit urban sprawl, and provide a buffer between the urban and rural areas. 

  • London Greenbelt. 

  • Tokyo Metropolitan Greenbelt. 

    • Protects green spaces. 

• New Urbanism

  • Greater focus on the architecture and community design. 

    • Leads to more self-contained and pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods. 

      • Integrates economic classes through a mixture of housing types. 

  • Often reflects European urban life. 

    • Places focus on local communities. 

• Criticisms for Urban Renewal & Smart Growth Policies

  • Can cause the cost of housing to increase. 

    • Ends up forcing lower-income residents out of their homes.

    • Results in De Facto Segregation. 

      • The separation of people along racial ethnic or socioeconomic lines that are not officially enforced by laws or regulations. 

• Gentrification

  • The process of renovating, rebuildings, or revitalization in an urban area, resulting in lower-income residents to become displaced and more affluent residents to move into the area.

  • Criticized for destroying historical neighborhoods with a unique cultural landscape and sense of place. 

    • New developments reshape and replace the spatial layout of cities and their neighborhoods. 

• Slow Growth Cities

  • Adopting policies and practices to limit the pace and scale of new developments. 

    • Referred to as slow growth cities. 

  • Seek to reduce the rate in which their cities grow outward in a variety of ways. 

  • Can implement growth boundaries.

    • Restricts the expansion of the city’s footprint and prevents urban sprawl. 

    • Can even create green belts to protect natural areas. 

  • Encourage infill development.

    • Cities seek to promote the development of vacant or undeveloped land within an already developed area. 

    • Redeveloping brownfield sites. 

      • When land that was contaminated by previously industrial or commerce use is cleaned up and repurposed for new use. 

  • Promote public transportation for pedestrians, cyclists, and other transportation options.

• Smart Cities

  • Cities that utilize technology and data to minimize inefficiencies, and optimize the city’s resource usage, improving the overall quality of life.   

  • Reduce the amount of food that is needed to be imported into the City. 

    • Promoting hydroponics & vertical farms. 

  • Strive to localize their energy production through more renewable energy (solar and wind). 

6.9: Urban Data

• Using Qualitative Data

  • It is observations, interviews, and individual thoughts. 

  • Information is often up for debate, and involves changing information based on when it is collected and who is collecting it. 

• Using Quantitative Data

  • Better understanding of specific details. 

  • Not up for debate. 

  • Hard facts/data. 

• Government Officials & Qualitative Data

  • Both types of data make many decisions that impact their constitutions.

    • Government officials analyze social media sites to gain insight into public opinion on different issues. 

    • Officials conducting focus groups & interviews.

      • Helps identify areas of concern or top priorities that the city could use to help inform policy decisions. 

• Government Officials & Quantitative Data

  • Analyzing census data to gain information about different demographics of a city.

    • Helps inform policy decisions involving housing, Social Services, education, and health care services. 

  • Can track different statistics (traffic accidents, crimes, etc.) to identify specific areas that need to be reworked on and have more security installed in. 

    • Can help them identify environmental issues (diseases, weather, etc.)

• Businesses & Qualitative Data

  • Conduct focus groups and interviews. 

  • Engage in community outreach programs to understand the needs and priorities of their customers & the broader community. 

  • Helps them better understand the right decisions they should make to remain connected with their customers. 

• Businesses & Quantitative Data

  • Inform their decisions. 

    • Analyzing market data (sales figures, market demand, or different economic indicators--employment rates, income levels, etc.)

  • Gain a better understanding of their customers and the economic status of a city. 

  • Understand the demographic data & transportation data (locating new stores, etc.) 

6.10: Challenges of Urban Changes

• Urban Areas & Challenges

  • Economic & Racial Segregation

    • Segregation along both economic and racial lines. 

      • Remnants of the Jim Crow laws and slavery. 

    • Clear distinction between neighborhoods separated along racial lines, often due to de facto segregation (in the United States). 

  • De Facto Segregation

    • Refers to the separation of people along racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic lines. 

    • Not enforced by laws or regulation. 

    • Many urban areas have seen rising housing prices through occurring development in the city. 

      • Led to lower income residents being pushed out due to unaffordable housing. 

        • Segregated the neighborhoods by socioeconomic status. 

  • Redlining 

    • A discriminatory practice that was known as Redline. 

    • Started when the federal government created maps of urban areas and color-coded them to visualize the level or risk associated with providing mortgage loans to different neighborhoods. 

      • Individuals were deemed high risk; they could be denied loans from the bank.

        • Filled with Black and Hispanic residents.  

      • Low risks were often given loans with favorable terms.

        • Filled with predominantly white. 

          • Allowed for the banks to deny loans to communities of color. 

            • Ended up segregating cities across the United States.

            • Redling is not legal today, but it can be seen through the generational wealth today. 

  • Blockbusting 

    • A practice where real estate agents would use fear and misinformation to scare white homeowners in predominantly white neighborhoods to sell their homes at a low price. 

      • Convinced people that minority groups were going to move into the neighborhood. 

        • With the cheap prices, they would mark up the homes and sell them to people of color and other minority groups.

          • Resulted in segregated neighborhoods. 

          • Distrust between communities: white flight. 

  • White Flight

    • Phenomenon in which white residents migrated out of an urban area to a suburban area in large numbers.

      • Often due to the arrival of colored communities or minority residents in the city. 

        • Led to the creation of racial and economic segregation. 

  • Urban Blight/Urban Decay

    • Neighborhoods that are disproportionately exposed to more environmental hazards such air pollution, water pollution, different toxins, and sound pollution. 

      • Highways are often built through here. 

        • Decreases the amount of green space in the area, leading to more pollution and environmental hazards. 

  • Environmental Injustice

    • Happen to vulnerable communities more frequently. 

      • Lack the same political representation and access to financial resources as other communities. 

  • Food Desert

    • Urban areas with less wealth are more susceptible to food deserts. 

      • Fresh food being scarce = higher rates of obesity, diabetes, and other health concerns.  

  • Disamenity Zones

    • Urban areas that often have high crime rates, vacant buildings, and few public resources and services, and lack quality infrastructure. 

      • Created due to lack of affordable housing and due to deindustrialization. 

  • Deindustrialization

    • Decline of industrial production and manufacturing, which can end up decimating communities whose account economy relied on those jobs. 

      • Become the poorest parts of a city. 

  • Informal Settlements/Squatter Settlements

    • An informal settlement is a residential area that has developed without the people who live there having a legal claim to the land. 

      • Created due to rapid urbanization.

      • A lack of effective zoning policies & affordable housing. 

      • Occur on the edges of a city or on vacant land. 

      • Do not have access to public resources and services. 

      • High rates of poverty. 

      • Lack legal protection from the government 

  • Revitalization Programs 

    • Programs that seek to promote economic growth and increase new opportunities for residents in an area. 

      • Ultimately attracts people back to the area. 

        • Providing more affordable housing. 

        • Improving infrastructure in the area.

        • Implementing new sustainable initiatives. 

        • Rezoning areas to allow for more residential and commercial integration. 

          • Creation of inclusionary zones. 

  • Inclusionary Zones

    • Programs and policies which seek to encourage the development of new housing projects. 

      • Catered toward more affordable housing (mostly for lower income residents). 

  • Urban Renewal

    • Revitalizing an area that has experienced a decline over the years.

      • Can lead to gentrification. 

        • Displaces the original residents of an area in favor of attracting affluent residents to the area. 

  • Gentrification

    • Increases segregation and separation based on socioeconomic status. 

    • Occurs because people might be trying to locate closer to the CBD due to the unique historical history of a neighborhood and the differences in economic and social opportunities that exist in the area. 

  • Bureaucracy

    • Each level of government has different impacts on cities. 

      • Federal government

        • Does not have the power to direct urban planning for cities. 

        • Can influence city development by using financial incentives that come with some specific requirements.  

        • Can use eminent domain

          • The right of the government to take private property to use it for public use. 

      • State

        • Can directly influence local city planning. 

      • Regional

        • Work to coordinate different municipalities within a region. 

        • Focus on transportation planning, economic development, and environmental protection policies for a region. 

      • Local

        • Charge of the day to day life inside the city’s limits.

        • Control the hinterlands and unincorporated county. 

      • Special Districts

        • Units of government that provide specific services for residents in the area. 

6.11: Challenges of Urban Sustainability

• Urban Sprawl & Sustainability

  • As urban areas continue to grow, they tend to expand outwards, leading to urban sprawl. 

    • Destroys the surrounding countryside. 

    • Increases the amount of money being spent on infrastructure and public services. 

    • Increases de facto segregation. 

    • Suburban sprawl happens. 

      • Decreases the sustainability of an urban area as they expand the amounts of roads, public services, utilities, and other infrastructure needs. 

        • Expensive to build and maintain, which forces governments to take on more debt, raise taxes, and overall place more pressure on businesses and residents. 

      • Destroys arable land, and surrounding countryside land as the land use changes. 

      • Increases the amount of air pollution as individuals now rely on automobiles to move between places, causing more CO₂  emissions. 

        • Less walkability between distances. 

      • Increases its ecological footprint. 

        • The amount of land and resources that are used to support the population of a city, which includes both the land where the city if located and the resources used to support the city. 

        • The larger the ecological footprint = the more strain there is on the natural resources. 

• Biodiversity & Cities

  • Cities tend to decrease the amount of biodiversity they take up.

    • Destruction of local habitats due to expansion into outer areas. 

• Climate change & Urban Challenges

  • Impact in changes in climate change has increased new challenges: electric local grids.

    • Energy demands increase as weather patterns change and influence the amount of heat or cold in a city. 

      • Can lead to rolling blackouts and high energy costs. 

• Sewage & Sanitation infrastructure 

  • Increased flushes = more poop = increased demand on local sewage systems. 

  • If cities are rapidly urbanizing, it can be difficult to build fast enough. 

    • Struggle to provide sewage services for all parts of the city. 

    • Risk health concerns. 

    • Risk local water sources/contamination. 

  • Can occur in cities with no proper trash collection/slums/areas with high poverty/little investment in essential infrastructure. 

• Responding to these Challenges 

  • Cities can reduce urban sprawl by implementing smart growth policies, creating green belts, and implementing growth boundaries. 

    • Growth boundaries often encourage infill development, which is the development of vacant or underdeveloped land within an already developed area. 

      • Redeveloping brownfield sites. 

        • Land that was contaminated by previous industrial or commercial use such as land that was being used as a former landfill. 

• Farmland Protection Policies 

  • Focuses on preserving agricultural land.

    • Can be accomplished by zoning land for agricultural use only or by government/conservation organizations purchasing rights to certain land. 

• Cities & Overcoming Challenges 

  • When cities work together with other regional governments, organizations, and other stakeholders, they are able to minimize the impact of these challenges and create new, sustainable communities. 

Unit 6 Big Ideas Questions 

1. How do physical geography and resources impact the presence and growth of cities?

Physical geography and resources impact the presence and growth of cities because they can limit or allow for cities to build and thrive in different directions and ways. Based on the surrounding geographic terrains and available resources, cities are build up or outward. 

2. How are the attitudes, values, and balance of power of a population reflected in the built landscape?

3. How are urban areas affected by unique economic, political, cultural, and environmental challenges?