unit 4

Topic 4.1 - Attribution Theory and Person Perception

• Attribution Theory – How people explain causes of behavior.
  Example: Assuming someone is late because they are careless (internal) or because of traffic (external).

• Situational Attribution – Explaining behavior based on external factors.
  Example: Blaming bad weather for slipping on ice.

• Dispositional Attribution – Explaining behavior based on internal traits.
  Example: Saying someone is rude because of their personality, not their mood.

• Fundamental Attribution Error – Overestimating personality traits and underestimating the situation when judging others.
  Example: Assuming a cashier is unfriendly rather than considering they had a bad day.

• Mere Exposure Effect – Liking something more because of repeated exposure.
  Example: Enjoying a song after hearing it multiple times.

• Explanatory Style – A person’s habitual way of explaining events (optimistic or pessimistic).
  Example: Saying "I failed because I’m bad at math" (pessimistic) vs. "I failed because I didn’t study" (optimistic).

• Self-Serving Bias – Taking credit for success but blaming external factors for failure.
  Example: "I got an A because I’m smart" vs. "I failed because the test was unfair."

• Mere-Ownership Effect – People prefer things they own.
  Example: Thinking your car is better than others just because it's yours.

• Actor-Observer Bias – Explaining our actions based on the situation but others' actions based on personality.
  Example: "I was late because of traffic, but he was late because he’s irresponsible."

• Self-Handicapping – Making excuses in advance to protect self-esteem.
  Example: Not studying and saying, "I’ll probably fail because I didn’t get enough sleep."

• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – When expectations influence behaviors to make them come true.
  Example: A teacher expecting a student to do well may unknowingly give them more attention, leading to better performance.

• Rotter’s Social Learning Theory – Behavior is influenced by experience and expectation of outcomes.

  • Internal Locus of Control – Belief that you control your own fate.
    Example: "I succeeded because I worked hard."

  • External Locus of Control – Belief that external factors control fate.
    Example: "I failed because the teacher is unfair."

• Expectancy Theory – Motivation depends on expected outcomes.
  Example: Studying hard because you expect a good grade.

• Upward Social Comparison – Comparing yourself to someone better.
  Example: A new athlete comparing themselves to a professional player.

• Downward Social Comparison – Comparing yourself to someone worse.
  Example: Feeling better about your test score after seeing someone scored lower.

• Relative Deprivation – Feeling disadvantaged compared to others.
  Example: Being unhappy with your salary after learning a coworker earns more.

Topic 4.2 - Attitude Formation and Change

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory – Discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs, leading to attitude change.
  Example: Feeling guilty about eating junk food while believing in healthy eating.

• Prejudice – Unjustified negative attitude toward a group.
  Example: Disliking someone based on their ethnicity.

• Discrimination – Acting unfairly based on prejudice.
  Example: Not hiring someone because of their gender.

• Stereotypes – Overgeneralized beliefs about a group.
  Example: "All teenagers are lazy."

• Implicit/Automatic Prejudice – Unconscious bias.
  Example: Feeling uneasy around a certain group without knowing why.

• Microaggression – Small, often unintentional insults based on identity.
  Example: Telling someone "You speak good English" because of their ethnicity.

• Just-World Phenomenon – Belief that people get what they deserve.
  Example: Assuming poor people didn’t work hard enough.

• Ethnocentrism – Believing one's own culture is superior.
  Example: Thinking another country’s customs are "weird" compared to yours.

• Ingroup/Outgroup Homogeneity Bias – Seeing one’s own group as diverse but outsiders as all the same.
  Example: "All people from that country act the same."

• Scapegoat Theory – Blaming a group for problems.
  Example: Blaming immigrants for job loss.

• Other-Race Effect – Better recognition of faces from one’s own race.
  Example: Struggling to distinguish faces of another race.

• Belief Perseverance – Sticking to beliefs despite evidence.
  Example: Still believing vaccines cause autism after seeing scientific proof they don’t.

Topic 4.3 - Psychology of Social Situations

• Chameleon Effect – Unconsciously mimicking others’ behaviors.
  Example: Yawning when someone else yawns.

• Conformity – Adjusting behavior to match a group.
  Example: Dressing like friends to fit in.

• Social Norms – Accepted rules of behavior.
  Example: Shaking hands when meeting someone.

• Social Influence Theory – Behavior is shaped by the presence of others.

  • Normative Social Influence – Conforming to gain approval.
    Example: Laughing at a joke you don’t understand.

  • Informational Social Influence – Conforming because others seem knowledgeable.
    Example: Following locals’ behavior in a foreign country.

  • Solomon Asch’s Conformity Studies – Showed people conform even when they know the group is wrong.

• Elaboration Likelihood Model – How people are persuaded.

  • Peripheral Route Persuasion – Influenced by superficial cues.
    Example: Buying a product because a celebrity endorses it.

  • Central Route Persuasion – Influenced by strong arguments.
    Example: Buying a phone after researching its specs.

• Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon – Agreeing to small requests leads to bigger ones.
  Example: Signing a petition makes you more likely to donate later.

• Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon – Starting with a big request makes a smaller one seem reasonable.
  Example: Asking for $100, getting denied, then asking for $20.

• Looking Glass Effect – Behavior changes when people see their reflection.
  Example: Cheating less when a mirror is present.

• Roles – Social positions with expected behavior.
  Example: Acting differently as a student versus a teacher.

• Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment – Showed how roles influence behavior.

• Milgram Obedience Experiments – Showed people obey authority even when harming others.

• Social Facilitation – Performing better in front of others.
  Example: Running faster in a race than alone.

• Social Loafing – People put in less effort in groups.
  Example: Slacking off on a group project.

• Deindividuation – Losing self-awareness in a group.
  Example: Rioting in a large crowd.

• Group Polarization – Group discussions strengthen opinions.
  Example: Political groups becoming more extreme after discussions.

• Groupthink – Prioritizing harmony over realistic decisions.
  Example: A jury agreeing too quickly to avoid conflict.

• Altruism – Helping others selflessly.
  Example: Donating anonymously.

• Bystander Effect – Less likely to help when others are present.
  Example: People not calling 911 in a crowd.

• Kitty Genovese Case – Famous case of the bystander effect.*

• Reciprocity Norm – Helping those who help us.

• Conflict Resolution – Methods to resolve disputes.
  Example: Mediation between two employees.

• Superordinate Goals – Goals that require cooperation.
  Example: Rival teams working together for charity.