Note
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Exam 4 Practice Flashcards
D-glucose is commonly known as dextrose.
It is a building block of cellulose.
It is the most common naturally occurring monosaccharide.
It is NOT a ketohexose; it's an aldohexose with the formula C6H{12}O_6.
Polymers of D-Glucose
Amylose, amylopectin, and cellulose are polymers of D-glucose.
Insulin is NOT a polymer of D-glucose.
Cellulose
Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, composed of β-glucose monomers.
Humans cannot digest cellulose due to its structural feature: linear chains with β-1,4 glycosidic bonds, creating strong hydrogen bonds between strands.
Lipids in Biological Membranes
Phospholipids are primarily involved in forming biological membranes such as the myelin sheath.
Phospholipids vs. Triglycerides
Phospholipids are distinguished from triglycerides by having a phosphate group replacing one fatty acid chain.
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
Saturated fats pack more tightly due to straight chains, while unsaturated fats have kinks that prevent tight packing.
Fatty Acid Notation: 18:1(Δ9)
The notation 18:1(Δ9) indicates that the fatty acid has 18 carbon atoms and one double bond at the 9th carbon from the carboxyl end.
Cholesterol and Bile Salts
Cholesterol is converted into bile salts, which act as emulsifiers to help digest lipids in the small intestine.
Hydrogenation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
The primary effect of hydrogenation on unsaturated fatty acids is to convert cis double bonds into trans double bonds, making the fatty acid more rigid.
Saponification Reaction
The saponification reaction, when a triglyceride is treated with a strong base like sodium hydroxide (NaOH), results in the triglyceride being broken down into glycerol and soap molecules (sodium salts of fatty acids).
Enzyme for Triglyceride Hydrolysis
Lipase is the enzyme primarily involved in the hydrolysis of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.
Cis vs. Trans Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Cis fatty acids have a "kink" in their structure due to hydrogen atoms being on the same side of the double bond.
Waxes
Waxes are composed of long-chain fatty acids esterified to long-chain alcohols, making them highly hydrophobic and water-resistant.
Oils vs. Fats
Oils are considered healthier than fats that are solid at room temperature because oils are composed of more unsaturated fatty acids, which tend to lower cholesterol levels.
Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols
The product of the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in the presence of water and a catalyst such as lipase is fatty acids and glycerol.
Glycerophospholipids
The glycerol backbone of glycerophospholipids is hydrophilic, while the fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, giving the molecule both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
Protein Classification and Function
Hormonal proteins regulate body functions by acting as messengers, like insulin.
Protein Structure: Primary
The primary structure of a protein refers to the unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Enzymes: Kinases
Kinases are primarily responsible for adding a phosphate group to a substrate in cellular processes.
Protein Folding
Protein folding is driven by the sequence of amino acids and the interactions between them, resulting in a specific 3D structure.
Enzyme Activity Regulation
Enzyme activity is regulated by the binding of an allosteric inhibitor or activator to a site other than the active site.
Amino Acid Classification
Polar amino acids have side chains that can form hydrogen bonds with water and other polar molecules.
Protein Tertiary Structure
Disulfide bonds between cysteine residues stabilize the 3D shape of a protein and contribute to its tertiary structure.
Protein Denaturation
When a protein undergoes denaturation, it loses its three-dimensional structure but retains its primary sequence of amino acids.
Protein Structures: Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary
Secondary structures are alpha-helices and beta-sheets; tertiary structure is the overall 3D shape; quaternary structure involves multiple polypeptides.
Collagen
Blood is not made up of collagen, but skin, tendons, and cartilage are.
Effect of Heat on Protein Structure
Heat disrupts hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions between the R groups, causing the protein to unfold and lose its tertiary structure.
Non-competitive Inhibition
In non-competitive inhibition, the inhibitor binds to the enzyme’s active site, blocking the substrate from binding, and this cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.
Allosteric Inhibition
In allosteric inhibition, the inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site, changing the enzyme’s shape and reducing its activity.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin C is NOT a fat-soluble vitamin; Vitamins A, D, and E are fat-soluble.
D-glucose is commonly known as dextrose.
It is a building block of cellulose.
It is the most common naturally occurring monosaccharide.
It is NOT a ketohexose; it's an aldohexose with the formula C6H{12}O_6.
Polymers of D-Glucose
Amylose, amylopectin, and cellulose are polymers of D-glucose.
Insulin is NOT a polymer of D-glucose.
Cellulose
Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, composed of β-glucose monomers.
Humans cannot digest cellulose due to its structural feature: linear chains with β-1,4 glycosidic bonds, creating strong hydrogen bonds between strands.
Lipids in Biological Membranes
Phospholipids are primarily involved in forming biological membranes such as the myelin sheath.
Phospholipids vs. Triglycerides
Phospholipids are distinguished from triglycerides by having a phosphate group replacing one fatty acid chain.
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
Saturated fats pack more tightly due to straight chains, while unsaturated fats have kinks that prevent tight packing.
Fatty Acid Notation: 18:1(Δ9)
The notation 18:1(Δ9) indicates that the fatty acid has 18 carbon atoms and one double bond at the 9th carbon from the carboxyl end.
Cholesterol and Bile Salts
Cholesterol is converted into bile salts, which act as emulsifiers to help digest lipids in the small intestine.
Hydrogenation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
The primary effect of hydrogenation on unsaturated fatty acids is to convert cis double bonds into trans double bonds, making the fatty acid more rigid.
Saponification Reaction
The saponification reaction, when a triglyceride is treated with a strong base like sodium hydroxide (NaOH), results in the triglyceride being broken down into glycerol and soap molecules (sodium salts of fatty acids).
Enzyme for Triglyceride Hydrolysis
Lipase is the enzyme primarily involved in the hydrolysis of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.
Cis vs. Trans Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Cis fatty acids have a "kink" in their structure due to hydrogen atoms being on the same side of the double bond.
Waxes
Waxes are composed of long-chain fatty acids esterified to long-chain alcohols, making them highly hydrophobic and water-resistant.
Oils vs. Fats
Oils are considered healthier than fats that are solid at room temperature because oils are composed of more unsaturated fatty acids, which tend to lower cholesterol levels.
Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols
The product of the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in the presence of water and a catalyst such as lipase is fatty acids and glycerol.
Glycerophospholipids
The glycerol backbone of glycerophospholipids is hydrophilic, while the fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, giving the molecule both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
Protein Classification and Function
Hormonal proteins regulate body functions by acting as messengers, like insulin.
Protein Structure: Primary
The primary structure of a protein refers to the unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Enzymes: Kinases
Kinases are primarily responsible for adding a phosphate group to a substrate in cellular processes.
Protein Folding
Protein folding is driven by the sequence of amino acids and the interactions between them, resulting in a specific 3D structure.
Enzyme Activity Regulation
Enzyme activity is regulated by the binding of an allosteric inhibitor or activator to a site other than the active site.
Amino Acid Classification
Polar amino acids have side chains that can form hydrogen bonds with water and other polar molecules.
Protein Tertiary Structure
Disulfide bonds between cysteine residues stabilize the 3D shape of a protein and contribute to its tertiary structure.
Protein Denaturation
When a protein undergoes denaturation, it loses its three-dimensional structure but retains its primary sequence of amino acids.
Protein Structures: Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary
Secondary structures are alpha-helices and beta-sheets; tertiary structure is the overall 3D shape; quaternary structure involves multiple polypeptides.
Collagen
Blood is not made up of collagen, but skin, tendons, and cartilage are.
Effect of Heat on Protein Structure
Heat disrupts hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions between the R groups, causing the protein to unfold and lose its tertiary structure.
Non-competitive Inhibition
In non-competitive inhibition, the inhibitor binds to the enzyme’s active site, blocking the substrate from binding, and this cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.
Allosteric Inhibition
In allosteric inhibition, the inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site, changing the enzyme’s shape and reducing its activity.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin C is NOT a fat-soluble vitamin; Vitamins A, D, and E are fat-soluble.