Personal rule to restoration 1629—1660 with Castles: form and function c. 1000 — 1750
During the rule of restoration, spanning from circa 1000 to 1750, this period in British history covers significant events and changes from the personal rule of Charles I, to the restoration of the monarchy with Charles II. Additionally, this particular period examines the development, form; function of castles from c.1000 to 1750.
Background: Charles I's reign viewed increasing tension between the monarchy and Parliament over issues like taxation, religion, and royal prerogatives
-Birth and family: Charles was born on November 19, 1600, in Dunfermline Palace, Scotland. He was the second son of King James VI of Scotland (later James I of England) and Anne of Denmark.
-Ascension to the throne: Ascended to throne after Hendry Federick’s death, Charles I's reign viewed increasing tension between the monarchy and Parliament over issues like taxation, religion, and royal prerogatives
-Divine Right of Kings: Charles I firmly believed in the divine right of kings, which held that monarchs were chosen by God and accountable only to Him. This belief put him at odds with Parliament, which sought to limit royal authority.
-Financial Struggles: Charles's financial policies, including forced loans and the controversial Ship Money tax, were highly unpopular. Led to raising funds without parliamentary consent led to widespread discontent.
-Religious Tensions: Charles's attempts to enforce religious uniformity and his perceived favoritism toward Catholicism alienated many of his subjects. His support for the policies of Archbishop William Laud, aimed to bring the Church of England closer to Catholic practices, sparked resistance.
-Personal Rule: Charles I dissolved Parliament in 9 April 1629 and ruled without it for 11 years.
-Scottish Rebellion: Charles's attempt to impose the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Scotland in 1637 led to the Bishops' Wars and ultimately the outbreak of rebellion.
Financial Measures:
Ship Money: A tax traditionally levied in coastal areas for naval defense, extended inland by Charles I. It was highly unpopular and led to widespread resistance.
Forced Loans: Loans imposed on subjects without parliamentary consent. Those who refused to pay were often imprisoned.
Religious Policies:
Arminianism: Promotion of Arminian practices within the Church of England, seen as too close to Catholicism. This alienated Puritans and other Protestant groups.
Laudian Reforms: Changes in church practices enforced by Archbishop William Laud, causing unrest among Puritans. These reforms included the beautification of churches and the strict enforcement of clerical conformity.
Cause: Imposition of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Scotland by Charles I.
Events:
First Bishops' War (1639): Scot signed the National Covanent in 1638 during the general assembly to reject those requests. Ended inconclusively with the Treaty of Berwick, which temporarily halted hostilities.
Second Bishops' War (1640): August 1640, the Scottish Covenanters, well-organized and motivated, invaded England and captured Newcastle, a key source of coal for London. The Scottish forces defeated the English at the Battle of Newburn, leading to further demoralization of Charles's troops.
Outcome: Forced Charles I to recall Parliament to finance the war effort, leading to increased parliamentary power and setting the stage for the English Civil War.
Causes:
Political: Conflicts over royal prerogative and parliamentary authority. The tension had been building for years, exacerbated by Charles I's financial and religious policies.
Religious: Division between supporters of the Church of England and Puritans, with issues such as the Laudian Reforms and fear of Catholicism playing significant roles.
Key Events:
Battle of Edgehill (1642): The first pitched battle, which was inconclusive but demonstrated the seriousness of the conflict. Forces: The Royalist army, commanded by Charles I and his nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine, faced the Parliamentarian army led by Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex.
Initial Engagement: The Royalist cavalry, led by Prince Rupert, initially gained the upper hand with a strong charge against the Parliamentarian left flank.
Parliamentarian Counterattack: Despite the initial success of the Royalist cavalry, the Parliamentarian infantry held their ground, and both sides eventually found themselves in a stalemate.
Battle of Marston Moor (1644): A major victory for the Parliamentarians, giving them control of the North of England.
Battle of Naseby (1645): A decisive Parliamentarian victory that led to the eventual defeat of the Royalists and effectively ended the first phase of the Civil War.
Outcome: Execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell.
Commonwealth (1649-1653):
Government: A republican government established, abolishing the monarchy and the House of Lords. It faced significant challenges in maintaining order and authority.
Challenges: Internal dissent and external threats, including Royalist uprisings and the Irish Confederate Wars. There were also issues of governance and legitimacy.
Protectorate (1653-1659):
Oliver Cromwell: Named Lord Protector, ruling as a quasi-monarch with considerable power.
Major-General Rule: England was divided into military districts, each governed by a Major-General, in an attempt to maintain order and enforce Puritan moral codes.
Policies:
Religious Toleration: Limited toleration for different Protestant sects, though Catholics and Anglicans faced restrictions.
Navigation Act (1651): Boosted English trade by restricting foreign ships' access to English ports, which led to increased economic prosperity but also conflict with the Dutch.
End of the Protectorate:
Richard Cromwell: Succeeded Oliver Cromwell but lacked authority and support, leading to the collapse of the Protectorate.
Restoration of the Monarchy (1660): Charles II was invited to return, marking the end of the Commonwealth and Protectorate and the restoration of traditional forms of government.
Motte and Bailey Castles:
Structure: Consisted of a wooden or stone keep on a raised earthwork (motte) accompanied by an enclosed courtyard (bailey). The bailey often contained barracks, stables, and other buildings essential for day-to-day operations.
Purpose: Provided defensive strongholds for Norman lords following the conquest of England in 1066, acting as symbols of Norman power and control.
Examples:
Windsor Castle: Originally a motte and bailey structure, later developed into a stone fortress. It became a significant royal residence and symbol of authority.
Norwich Castle: Built as a motte and bailey, later rebuilt in stone. It served both as a military stronghold and a royal palace.
Development: Transition from wooden structures to more durable stone fortifications. This change was driven by the need for more robust and permanent defenses.
Features: Central stone keep, curtain walls, towers, and gatehouses. The keep was the most fortified part, often serving as the last line of defense.
Defensive Elements: Arrow slits, machicolations (overhanging parapets with openings for dropping stones or boiling oil), and murder holes (openings in the ceilings of gateways) for defense.
Examples:
Dover Castle: Known as the "Key to England," it features extensive stone defenses and a prominent keep. Its strategic location made it crucial for controlling the English Channel.
Rochester Castle: Notable for its imposing stone keep and strategic location on the River Medway, playing a key role in various conflicts throughout history.
Design: Featured multiple layers of curtain walls, creating concentric rings of defense. This design allowed defenders to fall back to inner walls if the outer defenses were breached.
Advantages: Provided additional layers of protection and allowed defenders to retreat to inner defenses. It also facilitated better organization and coordination during sieges.
Elements: Inner and outer baileys, round towers (which were harder to undermine than square towers), and extensive ditches.
Examples:
Beaumaris Castle: Considered the "perfect" concentric castle, with a symmetrical layout and strong defenses. It incorporated the latest in military architecture and was designed to be virtually impregnable.
Caerphilly Castle: Known for its extensive water defenses, including lakes and moats, and multiple concentric walls. It is one of the largest castles in Britain and a masterpiece of medieval military architecture.
Decline in Military Importance: Advances in artillery and gunpowder rendered traditional castles less effective for defense. The development of cannons and siege artillery meant that even the thickest walls could be breached.
Adaptation and Reuse: Many castles were adapted for residential use or abandoned. They were often transformed into grand homes or palaces.
Examples:
Windsor Castle: Transformed into a royal residence. It remains one of the official residences of the British monarch to this day.
Kenilworth Castle: Renovated to create more comfortable living quarters, particularly under Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.
New Fortifications: Development of star forts and bastions designed to withstand artillery attacks. These new designs featured angled walls and earthen banks that could absorb cannon fire.
Examples:
Tilbury Fort: A star fort built to protect the Thames estuary. It played a crucial role in defending London against foreign invasions.
Plymouth Citadel: Incorporates bastion fortification principles, providing a strong defensive position against both land and sea attacks.
Residences and Courts: Many castles served as grand residences and administrative centers. They were often the homes of nobility and royalty, as well as centers of local governance.
Examples:
Hampton Court Palace: Originally a castle, transformed into a lavish palace by Henry VIII. It became one of the most important residences of the Tudor monarchs.
Edinburgh Castle: Served as a royal residence, military stronghold, and administrative center. It has a long and storied history, playing a key role in Scotland's national identity.
Cultural Significance: Castles became symbols of power, authority, and prestige. They were often designed to impress and intimidate, showcasing the wealth and influence of their owners.
Architectural Innovation: Incorporation of Renaissance and Baroque styles in later periods. This included elaborate facades, ornate interiors, and extensive gardens, reflecting the changing tastes and priorities of the time.
Personal Rule: Period (1629-1640) during which Charles I ruled without calling Parliament.
Ship Money: A form of taxation imposed by Charles I without parliamentary consent.
Arminianism: A branch of Protestantism emphasizing free will and opposed to strict Calvinist predestination.
Laudian Reforms: Changes in church practices enforced by Archbishop William Laud.
Bishops' Wars: Conflicts between England and Scotland over religious reforms imposed by Charles I.
Commonwealth: The republican government established after the execution of Charles I.
Protectorate: The period of rule by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector.
Restoration: The return of Charles II to the throne in 1660, marking the end of the Commonwealth and Protectorate.
Motte and Bailey: Early castle design featuring a wooden or stone keep on a raised earthwork and an enclosed courtyard.
Stone Keep: Castles with central stone keeps, providing durable and strong defenses.
Concentric Castles: Castles with multiple layers of curtain walls for enhanced defense.
Star Fort: Fortification design with star-shaped walls to withstand artillery attacks.
During the rule of restoration, spanning from circa 1000 to 1750, this period in British history covers significant events and changes from the personal rule of Charles I, to the restoration of the monarchy with Charles II. Additionally, this particular period examines the development, form; function of castles from c.1000 to 1750.
Background: Charles I's reign viewed increasing tension between the monarchy and Parliament over issues like taxation, religion, and royal prerogatives
-Birth and family: Charles was born on November 19, 1600, in Dunfermline Palace, Scotland. He was the second son of King James VI of Scotland (later James I of England) and Anne of Denmark.
-Ascension to the throne: Ascended to throne after Hendry Federick’s death, Charles I's reign viewed increasing tension between the monarchy and Parliament over issues like taxation, religion, and royal prerogatives
-Divine Right of Kings: Charles I firmly believed in the divine right of kings, which held that monarchs were chosen by God and accountable only to Him. This belief put him at odds with Parliament, which sought to limit royal authority.
-Financial Struggles: Charles's financial policies, including forced loans and the controversial Ship Money tax, were highly unpopular. Led to raising funds without parliamentary consent led to widespread discontent.
-Religious Tensions: Charles's attempts to enforce religious uniformity and his perceived favoritism toward Catholicism alienated many of his subjects. His support for the policies of Archbishop William Laud, aimed to bring the Church of England closer to Catholic practices, sparked resistance.
-Personal Rule: Charles I dissolved Parliament in 9 April 1629 and ruled without it for 11 years.
-Scottish Rebellion: Charles's attempt to impose the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Scotland in 1637 led to the Bishops' Wars and ultimately the outbreak of rebellion.
Financial Measures:
Ship Money: A tax traditionally levied in coastal areas for naval defense, extended inland by Charles I. It was highly unpopular and led to widespread resistance.
Forced Loans: Loans imposed on subjects without parliamentary consent. Those who refused to pay were often imprisoned.
Religious Policies:
Arminianism: Promotion of Arminian practices within the Church of England, seen as too close to Catholicism. This alienated Puritans and other Protestant groups.
Laudian Reforms: Changes in church practices enforced by Archbishop William Laud, causing unrest among Puritans. These reforms included the beautification of churches and the strict enforcement of clerical conformity.
Cause: Imposition of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Scotland by Charles I.
Events:
First Bishops' War (1639): Scot signed the National Covanent in 1638 during the general assembly to reject those requests. Ended inconclusively with the Treaty of Berwick, which temporarily halted hostilities.
Second Bishops' War (1640): August 1640, the Scottish Covenanters, well-organized and motivated, invaded England and captured Newcastle, a key source of coal for London. The Scottish forces defeated the English at the Battle of Newburn, leading to further demoralization of Charles's troops.
Outcome: Forced Charles I to recall Parliament to finance the war effort, leading to increased parliamentary power and setting the stage for the English Civil War.
Causes:
Political: Conflicts over royal prerogative and parliamentary authority. The tension had been building for years, exacerbated by Charles I's financial and religious policies.
Religious: Division between supporters of the Church of England and Puritans, with issues such as the Laudian Reforms and fear of Catholicism playing significant roles.
Key Events:
Battle of Edgehill (1642): The first pitched battle, which was inconclusive but demonstrated the seriousness of the conflict. Forces: The Royalist army, commanded by Charles I and his nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine, faced the Parliamentarian army led by Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex.
Initial Engagement: The Royalist cavalry, led by Prince Rupert, initially gained the upper hand with a strong charge against the Parliamentarian left flank.
Parliamentarian Counterattack: Despite the initial success of the Royalist cavalry, the Parliamentarian infantry held their ground, and both sides eventually found themselves in a stalemate.
Battle of Marston Moor (1644): A major victory for the Parliamentarians, giving them control of the North of England.
Battle of Naseby (1645): A decisive Parliamentarian victory that led to the eventual defeat of the Royalists and effectively ended the first phase of the Civil War.
Outcome: Execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell.
Commonwealth (1649-1653):
Government: A republican government established, abolishing the monarchy and the House of Lords. It faced significant challenges in maintaining order and authority.
Challenges: Internal dissent and external threats, including Royalist uprisings and the Irish Confederate Wars. There were also issues of governance and legitimacy.
Protectorate (1653-1659):
Oliver Cromwell: Named Lord Protector, ruling as a quasi-monarch with considerable power.
Major-General Rule: England was divided into military districts, each governed by a Major-General, in an attempt to maintain order and enforce Puritan moral codes.
Policies:
Religious Toleration: Limited toleration for different Protestant sects, though Catholics and Anglicans faced restrictions.
Navigation Act (1651): Boosted English trade by restricting foreign ships' access to English ports, which led to increased economic prosperity but also conflict with the Dutch.
End of the Protectorate:
Richard Cromwell: Succeeded Oliver Cromwell but lacked authority and support, leading to the collapse of the Protectorate.
Restoration of the Monarchy (1660): Charles II was invited to return, marking the end of the Commonwealth and Protectorate and the restoration of traditional forms of government.
Motte and Bailey Castles:
Structure: Consisted of a wooden or stone keep on a raised earthwork (motte) accompanied by an enclosed courtyard (bailey). The bailey often contained barracks, stables, and other buildings essential for day-to-day operations.
Purpose: Provided defensive strongholds for Norman lords following the conquest of England in 1066, acting as symbols of Norman power and control.
Examples:
Windsor Castle: Originally a motte and bailey structure, later developed into a stone fortress. It became a significant royal residence and symbol of authority.
Norwich Castle: Built as a motte and bailey, later rebuilt in stone. It served both as a military stronghold and a royal palace.
Development: Transition from wooden structures to more durable stone fortifications. This change was driven by the need for more robust and permanent defenses.
Features: Central stone keep, curtain walls, towers, and gatehouses. The keep was the most fortified part, often serving as the last line of defense.
Defensive Elements: Arrow slits, machicolations (overhanging parapets with openings for dropping stones or boiling oil), and murder holes (openings in the ceilings of gateways) for defense.
Examples:
Dover Castle: Known as the "Key to England," it features extensive stone defenses and a prominent keep. Its strategic location made it crucial for controlling the English Channel.
Rochester Castle: Notable for its imposing stone keep and strategic location on the River Medway, playing a key role in various conflicts throughout history.
Design: Featured multiple layers of curtain walls, creating concentric rings of defense. This design allowed defenders to fall back to inner walls if the outer defenses were breached.
Advantages: Provided additional layers of protection and allowed defenders to retreat to inner defenses. It also facilitated better organization and coordination during sieges.
Elements: Inner and outer baileys, round towers (which were harder to undermine than square towers), and extensive ditches.
Examples:
Beaumaris Castle: Considered the "perfect" concentric castle, with a symmetrical layout and strong defenses. It incorporated the latest in military architecture and was designed to be virtually impregnable.
Caerphilly Castle: Known for its extensive water defenses, including lakes and moats, and multiple concentric walls. It is one of the largest castles in Britain and a masterpiece of medieval military architecture.
Decline in Military Importance: Advances in artillery and gunpowder rendered traditional castles less effective for defense. The development of cannons and siege artillery meant that even the thickest walls could be breached.
Adaptation and Reuse: Many castles were adapted for residential use or abandoned. They were often transformed into grand homes or palaces.
Examples:
Windsor Castle: Transformed into a royal residence. It remains one of the official residences of the British monarch to this day.
Kenilworth Castle: Renovated to create more comfortable living quarters, particularly under Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.
New Fortifications: Development of star forts and bastions designed to withstand artillery attacks. These new designs featured angled walls and earthen banks that could absorb cannon fire.
Examples:
Tilbury Fort: A star fort built to protect the Thames estuary. It played a crucial role in defending London against foreign invasions.
Plymouth Citadel: Incorporates bastion fortification principles, providing a strong defensive position against both land and sea attacks.
Residences and Courts: Many castles served as grand residences and administrative centers. They were often the homes of nobility and royalty, as well as centers of local governance.
Examples:
Hampton Court Palace: Originally a castle, transformed into a lavish palace by Henry VIII. It became one of the most important residences of the Tudor monarchs.
Edinburgh Castle: Served as a royal residence, military stronghold, and administrative center. It has a long and storied history, playing a key role in Scotland's national identity.
Cultural Significance: Castles became symbols of power, authority, and prestige. They were often designed to impress and intimidate, showcasing the wealth and influence of their owners.
Architectural Innovation: Incorporation of Renaissance and Baroque styles in later periods. This included elaborate facades, ornate interiors, and extensive gardens, reflecting the changing tastes and priorities of the time.
Personal Rule: Period (1629-1640) during which Charles I ruled without calling Parliament.
Ship Money: A form of taxation imposed by Charles I without parliamentary consent.
Arminianism: A branch of Protestantism emphasizing free will and opposed to strict Calvinist predestination.
Laudian Reforms: Changes in church practices enforced by Archbishop William Laud.
Bishops' Wars: Conflicts between England and Scotland over religious reforms imposed by Charles I.
Commonwealth: The republican government established after the execution of Charles I.
Protectorate: The period of rule by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector.
Restoration: The return of Charles II to the throne in 1660, marking the end of the Commonwealth and Protectorate.
Motte and Bailey: Early castle design featuring a wooden or stone keep on a raised earthwork and an enclosed courtyard.
Stone Keep: Castles with central stone keeps, providing durable and strong defenses.
Concentric Castles: Castles with multiple layers of curtain walls for enhanced defense.
Star Fort: Fortification design with star-shaped walls to withstand artillery attacks.
