US History Unit 6 Reconstruction Era USHS10

1. Compromise of 1850

The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five separate bills passed by the United States Congress that defused a four-year political confrontation between slave and free states regarding the status of territories acquired during the Mexican-American War. Its historical significance lies in temporarily easing sectional tensions over slavery for a decade, but also in introducing the highly controversial and eventually divisive Fugitive Slave Act, which inflamed Northern abolitionist sentiment and resistance.

2. Kansas-Nebraska Act

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 was a law that created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and stipulated that the issue of slavery in these territories would be decided by "popular sovereignty" (the vote of the residents), thereby repealing the Missouri Compromise line of 36°30′. Its historical significance is immense as it directly led to widespread violence in Kansas ("Bleeding Kansas") as pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers rushed to influence the vote, further intensifying sectional conflict and severely damaging the Whig Party, paving the way for the rise of the Republican Party.

3. Popular Sovereignty

Popular sovereignty, in the context of the pre-Civil War era, was the principle that the settlers of a federal territory should have the right to decide by popular vote whether or not to allow slavery within their borders. Its historical significance lies in being proposed as a democratic solution to the expansion of slavery, particularly championed by Stephen Douglas. However, its practical application (as seen in the Kansas-Nebraska Act) proved highly contentious and violent, ultimately failing to prevent sectional strife and contributing to the outbreak of the Civil War.

4. Dred Scott

Dred Scott was an enslaved African American man in the United States who unsuccessfully sued for his freedom and that of his wife and two daughters in the landmark Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford. His historical significance is tied directly to this case, which became a focal point for the national debate on slavery, property rights, and the legal status of African Americans.

5. Scott v. Sandford (1857)

Scott v. Sandford (1857) was a landmark decision by the U.S. Supreme Court that ruled that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court, and that the federal government had no power to regulate slavery in federal territories acquired after the creation of the United States. Its historical significance is profound as it effectively declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, severely limited Congress's power over slavery, intensified sectional divisions, solidified pro-slavery arguments by affirming slaves as property, and outraged abolitionists, pushing the nation closer to civil war.

6. John Brown

John Brown was a radical abolitionist who believed in armed insurrection as the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the United States. His historical significance is primarily rooted in his raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859. For Northerners, he became a martyr to the cause of abolition; for Southerners, he reinforced fears of abolitionist-incited slave rebellions and Northern aggression, further polarizing the nation.

7. Harpers Ferry

Harpers Ferry (now Harpers Ferry, West Virginia) was the site of John Brown's raid in October 1859, where he and his followers attempted to seize a federal arsenal to initiate an armed slave revolt. Its historical significance is that the failed raid and Brown's subsequent execution deeply intensified sectional tensions, solidifying Southern paranoia about Northern aggression and abolitionist plots, and contributing to the growing sense of an inevitable conflict.

8. Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States, serving from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. His historical significance is monumental as he successfully led the Union through the Civil War, preserving the United States as a nation, and initiating the process that led to the abolition of slavery with the Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment. He is revered for his leadership, moral courage, and commitment to the principles of liberty and equality.

9. Election of 1860

The Election of 1860 saw Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln win the presidency, largely due to a divided Democratic Party which ran two separate candidates (Stephen Douglas in the North and John C. Breckinridge in the South), as well as a fourth candidate (John Bell) from the Constitutional Union Party. Its historical significance is paramount as Lincoln's victory, without a single Southern electoral vote, was the immediate catalyst for the secession of Southern states, leading directly to the formation of the Confederate States of America and the outbreak of the Civil War.

10. Writ of Habeas Corpus

The writ of habeas corpus is a legal action that requires a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or into court, especially to secure the person's release unless lawful grounds are shown for their detention. Its historical significance during the Civil War is that President Abraham Lincoln controversially suspended it in certain areas and for specific individuals during the conflict (e.g., suspected Confederate sympathizers), arguing it was necessary to preserve the Union and national security in a time of rebellion. This action raised significant constitutional questions about executive power during wartime.

11. Jefferson Davis

Jefferson Davis was an American politician and military officer who served as the President of the Confederate States of America for its entire existence during the Civil War (1861-1865). His historical significance is as the symbolic and actual leader of the Confederacy, representing the Southern cause of states' rights and the preservation of slavery. His leadership during the war is often contrasted with Lincoln's, and he is a central figure in understanding the political and military strategy of the South.

12. Fort Sumter

Fort Sumter was a federal fort located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. Its historical significance is that it was the site of the first shots of the American Civil War on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces bombarded the fort after Union efforts to resupply it. The attack and subsequent surrender of Fort Sumter galvanized both the North and the South, marking the definitive beginning of the four-year armed conflict.

13. Robert E. Lee

Robert E. Lee was a highly respected Confederate general who commanded the Army of Northern Virginia during the American Civil War. His historical significance lies in his military prowess and leadership, often outmaneuvering larger Union forces. He became an iconic figure for the Confederacy, embodying Southern chivalry and military skill, despite ultimately surrendering to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the war.

14. Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson

Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson was a prominent Confederate general during the American Civil War, known for his audacious tactics and steadfastness in battle, earning his famous nickname at the First Battle of Bull Run. His historical significance is as one of the most brilliant and successful Confederate military commanders, particularly known for his Valley Campaign and his role in major Confederate victories (like Chancellorsville, where he was mortally wounded). His death was a significant blow to the Confederacy.

15. Emancipation Proclamation

The Emancipation Proclamation was a presidential proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, declaring that all enslaved people in Confederate states (states still in rebellion against the Union) were to be free. Its historical significance is paramount as it transformed the Union's war aim from solely preserving the Union to also including the abolition of slavery, fundamentally changing the moral purpose of the war, encouraging enslaved people to flee to Union lines, and deterring potential European intervention on behalf of the Confederacy.

16. Battle of Gettysburg

The Battle of Gettysburg, fought from July 1–3, 1863, in southeastern Pennsylvania, was a decisive Union victory over Confederate forces led by General Robert E. Lee. Its historical significance is that it marked the "high-water mark" of the Confederacy; Lee's second and final invasion of the North was repelled, and his army suffered irreplaceable losses. It was a major turning point in the war, signaling that the South would no longer be able to mount a major offensive and would be forced onto the defensive.

17. Gettysburg Address

The Gettysburg Address was a profoundly eloquent speech delivered by President Abraham Lincoln on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery after the Battle of Gettysburg. Its historical significance is immense for redefining the purpose of the Civil War, emphasizing the ideals of liberty and equality from the Declaration of Independence, dedicating the nation to a "new birth of freedom," and articulating the ultimate goal of preserving a government "of the people, by the people, for the people."

18. Vicksburg

Vicksburg (Mississippi) was a strategically vital Confederate stronghold located on a bluff overlooking the Mississippi River. Its historical significance relates to the Siege of Vicksburg (May 18–July 4, 1863), where Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant captured the city. This victory gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two, cutting off vital supply lines and communication, and completing a major part of the Anaconda Plan. It was a crucial turning point in the Civil War, occurring almost simultaneously with Gettysburg.

19. Ulysses S. Grant

Ulysses S. Grant was a prominent Union general during the Civil War and the 18th President of the United States (1869-1877). His historical significance during the war is as the Union's most successful general, known for his relentless pursuit of Confederate armies and his willingness to fight costly battles. He ultimately commanded all Union armies, leading them to victory and accepting Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House, symbolizing the Union's triumph. As President, he oversaw much of Reconstruction, though his presidency was marked by scandals.

20. William T. Sherman

William T. Sherman was a Union general during the American Civil War, most famous for his "March to the Sea." His historical significance lies in his pioneering use of "total war" tactics, believing that to end the war quickly, the Union needed to break the South's will and economic capacity to fight, not just its armies. His campaigns, particularly through Georgia and the Carolinas, devastated Southern infrastructure and resources, contributing significantly to the Confederacy's collapse.

21. Sherman’s March to the Sea

Sherman's March to the Sea was a military campaign conducted by Union General William T. Sherman from November to December 1864, where his army marched from captured Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia, destroying military targets as well as anything that could support the Confederate war effort (e.g., railroads, crops, factories, infrastructure). Its historical significance is that it achieved a major psychological blow to the Confederacy, demoralized the Southern populace, severely crippled the South's economic and logistical capacity, and demonstrated the effectiveness of total war, contributing directly to the Confederacy's eventual surrender.

22. Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address

Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address, delivered on March 4, 1865, shortly before the end of the Civil War, is one of the most famous speeches in American history. Its historical significance is that it offered a profound theological and moral reflection on the war, acknowledging slavery as its cause, and stressed reconciliation and healing "with malice toward none, with charity for all." It laid the groundwork for a lenient Reconstruction and urged the nation towards unity and a lasting peace, aiming to "bind up the nation's wounds."

23. Freedmen’s Bureau

The Freedmen's Bureau (officially the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands) was established by Congress in March 1865 to aid newly freed African Americans (freedmen) and impoverished whites in the South after the Civil War. Its historical significance is in its crucial, though often limited, efforts during Reconstruction to provide various forms of assistance, including food, medical care, housing, legal aid, and especially education (establishing thousands of schools). It represented the federal government's first major foray into social welfare and civil rights, working to transition former slaves to freedom.

24. 13th Amendment

The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in December 1865, states: "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." Its historical significance is monumental as it formally and constitutionally
abolished slavery throughout the entire United States, permanently ending the institution that had been the primary cause of the Civil War and fundamentally transforming American society.

25. Assassination

In the context of this unit, assassination most notably refers to the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865, just days after the Confederate surrender at Appomattox. Its historical significance is immense; it deprived the nation of Lincoln's leadership during the crucial period of Reconstruction, profoundly shocked and saddened the nation, and led to a harsher, more confrontational approach to Reconstruction under Andrew Johnson and later the Radical Republicans than Lincoln had likely intended.

26. “Black Codes”

"Black Codes" were restrictive laws passed by Southern state legislatures during 1865 and 1866, immediately after the Civil War but before the full implementation of Congressional Reconstruction. Their historical significance is that they were designed to control the labor and behavior of newly freed African Americans, effectively attempting to return them to a condition as close to slavery as possible. These codes aimed to maintain white supremacy and a subservient Black labor force, provoking outrage in the North and contributing to the rise of Radical Reconstruction.

27. 14th Amendment

The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1868 during Reconstruction, is one of the most significant amendments. Its historical significance is that it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States (including former slaves), established the principle of "due process of law", and guaranteed "equal protection of the laws" to all citizens. It became a cornerstone of civil rights, ensuring federal protection against state infringements on individual rights and laying the legal foundation for future civil rights movements, effectively overturning the Dred Scott decision.

28. 15th Amendment

The 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1870, declared that the "right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Its historical significance is that it theoretically guaranteed voting rights for African American men, marking a major achievement of Radical Reconstruction and extending the democratic franchise to a previously disenfranchised population. However, its effectiveness was severely undermined in the South by various methods (poll taxes, literacy tests, intimidation) for nearly another century.

29. Presidential Reconstruction

Presidential Reconstruction refers to the initial phase of Reconstruction (roughly 1863-1866), primarily conceived by Abraham Lincoln and implemented by Andrew Johnson. Its historical significance is that it favored a lenient and quick reintegration of Southern states into the Union, with minimal federal intervention in state affairs and little emphasis on securing rights for freed slaves beyond the abolition of slavery itself. This approach allowed Southern states to enact Black Codes and largely resist federal efforts at racial equality, leading to eventual conflict with Congress and the shift to Congressional Reconstruction.

30. Congressional Reconstruction

Congressional Reconstruction (or Radical Reconstruction), occurring roughly from 1867 to 1877, refers to the period when the Republican-controlled Congress took control of Reconstruction from President Andrew Johnson, largely in response to Southern resistance and the effectiveness of Black Codes. Its historical significance is that it was a much harsher and more assertive federal effort to reshape the South, focusing on protecting the rights of freedmen, readmitting Southern states only after they ratified the 14th and 15th Amendments, and enforcing these changes through military occupation of the South. It led to a brief period of groundbreaking civil rights advancements for African Americans.

31. Radical Republicans

The Radical Republicans were a faction within the Republican Party during the 1860s and 1870s, highly influential in Congress. Their historical significance is that they advocated for a punitive approach to the defeated Confederate states during Reconstruction, demanded federal protection for freedmen's rights (including suffrage), and sought to fundamentally transform Southern society. They championed legislation like the Reconstruction Acts, the 14th and 15th Amendments, and the Freedmen's Bureau, clashing frequently with President Andrew Johnson and driving Congressional Reconstruction efforts.

32. Martial Law

Martial law is the temporary imposition of direct military control over normal civilian functions, typically by a government in an emergency. In this unit's context, its historical significance is during the Civil War, when President Lincoln occasionally imposed it to ensure loyalty in border states like Maryland and suppress dissent. During Congressional Reconstruction, the South was divided into five military districts under martial law, demonstrating the federal government's commitment to enforce Reconstruction policies and protect freedmen's rights, especially against resistance from former Confederates.

33. Impeachment

Impeachment is a formal process in which a legislative body initiates charges against a public official for misconduct. In this unit, its historical significance refers to the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson by the House of Representatives in 1868. While he was acquitted by the Senate, the impeachment proceedings represent a major turning point in the power struggle between the Executive and Legislative branches during Reconstruction, demonstrating Congress's determination to control Reconstruction policy and holding the President accountable for obstructing their will.

34. Sharecropper

A sharecropper was a tenant farmer who worked on land owned by another in exchange for a share of the crop. After the Civil War, the sharecropping system became the dominant form of agricultural labor in the post-slavery South. Its historical significance is that it severely affected newly freed African Americans (and poor whites), often trapping them in a cycle of debt and perpetual poverty, essentially limiting their economic freedom and creating a new form of economic dependence that resembled slavery, despite the abolition of the institution.

35. Ku Klux Klan

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a white supremacist terrorist organization founded in the South shortly after the Civil War. Its historical significance is its role as a primary instrument of racial terror and intimidation during Reconstruction, aiming to restore white supremacy, undermine Republican rule, and prevent African Americans from exercising their newly gained rights (especially voting). Through violence, murder, and intimidation, the KKK was instrumental in suppressing Black political power and resisting federal Reconstruction efforts, contributing to the ultimate failure of Reconstruction.

36. “Compromise of 1877”

The "Compromise of 1877" was an unwritten agreement that resolved the disputed 1876 presidential election between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. Its historical significance is that it formally ended Reconstruction. In exchange for Democrats dropping their opposition to Hayes's election, Republicans agreed to withdraw the remaining federal troops from the South. This removal of federal protection allowed Southern Democrats (Redeemers) to regain unquestioned political control, leading to the systematic disenfranchisement of African Americans, the imposition of Jim Crow laws, and effectively reversing many of the gains of Reconstruction. This document outlines the increasing sectionalism in the United States from 1820-1860, providing a detailed overview of the key events and compromises that ultimately led to the Civil War. It covers the economic and social differences between the North and South, major political disputes over slavery, and significant abolitionist efforts.

I. Sectionalism in the Antebellum Era—From 1800-1860, the North and South became vastly different regions

A. “King Cotton” had transformed the South into a rural region with slavery, little manufacturing, and few railroads

B. The North had industrial factories, cities, paid immigrant workers, railroads, and larger populations

C. These regional differences increased sectionalism–placing the interests of a region above the interests of the nation

II. 1820-1850: Sectionalism was mild and resolved by compromise

A. Missouri Compromise of 1820

  1. The first major issue regarding slavery in the antebellum era focused on Missouri becoming a state in 1820:

a. Northerners and Southerners did not want to upset the equal balance of free and slave states in the Senate

b. Northerners did not want slavery to spread beyond the “Ohio River Valley”

c. Southerners did not think Congress had the power to stop slavery

  1. In 1820, Henry Clay negotiated the Missouri Compromise: Missouri became a slave state, Maine broke from Massachusetts and became a free state, Slavery was outlawed in all western territories above the latitude of 36º30’

B. Nullification Crisis of 1832

  1. In the 1830s, Tariffs divided North and South

a. Southerners argued that tariffs benefited only the North and made manufactured goods too expensive

b. John C. Calhoun of SC attempted nullification and threatened secession

  1. President Jackson fought this states’ rights argument

C. The Nat Turner rebellion increased the barbarity of slavery in the South

  1. In 1831, Nat Turner freed slaves on Virginia farms and killed 60 whites

  2. Southern whites responded by making slave codes more severe

D. Manifest Destiny and the Wilmot Proviso

  1. Texas was not annexed for 9 years because its would unbalance the number of free and slave states

  2. The addition of the Mexican Cession after the Mexican-American War gave Southerners hope that slavery would spread to the Pacific Ocean

  3. In 1846, Northern Congressmen tried to pass the Wilmot Proviso:

a. This law would have outlawed all slavery from the Mexican Cession

b. Rather than voting along party lines (Democrats and Whigs), Congressmen voting according to their region

  1. In 1848, the Free Soil Party was formed to keep slavery from expanding West

E. California and the Compromise of 1850

  1. In 1850, California asked to enter the Union as a free state:

a. Southerners did not want more free states and wanted slavery to be allowed in the Southwestern territories

b. Northerners wanted to keep slavery out of the SW and wanted other laws to protect runaway slaves who made it to freedom in the North

  1. The Compromise of 1850 solved the sectional dispute between North and South: California entered as a free state, The people of Utah and New Mexico could vote to allow or ban slavery (Popular Sovereignty), The slave trade ended in Washington DC, A stronger Fugitive Slave Law was created that allowed Southerners to recapture slaves in the North

F. From 1820 to 1850, sectionalism in America increased due to

  1. Differences in economies and the use of slavery, Westward expansion and the entry of new states to the Union, Growing abolitionism in the North

  2. But, each time a dispute threatened the nation, a compromise was reached

III. 1850-1856: The growth of abolitionism and westward expansion intensified the question of the “morality” of slavery

A. Abolitionists and many Northerners despised the Compromise of 1850:

  1. The Fugitive Slave Law allowed runaway slaves (and sometimes free blacks) to be recaptured and enslaved

  2. Northerners formed vigilante committees to protect runaways

  3. Abolitionism grew in the North

a. William Lloyd Garrison formed the American Anti-Slavery Society and published The Liberator

b. Ex-slave Frederick Douglass published The North Star

c. The Grimké Sisters revealed that some Southerners opposed slavery

d. The Underground Railroad was a network of safe houses to help slaves escape to freedom

B. In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe published Uncle Tom’s Cabin

  1. Depicted slavery as a moral evil and inspired many in the North to join the abolitionist cause

  2. Became the bestselling book of the 19th century

C. Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854

  1. In 1854, Congress passed Stephen Douglas’ Kansas-Nebraska Act

a. The law used popular sovereignty to give the residents of the territories the right to vote to determine slavery

b. To do this, Congress repealed (ended) the Missouri Compromise line at 36º30’ in the western territories

  1. Northerners were outraged by the Kansas-Nebraska Act:

a. Congress allowed slavery to spread into an area where slavery was already outlawed

b. Northerners formed the Republican Party in 1854 and became committed to the “free soil” movement

  1. Popular sovereignty failed to settle the slavery question in the West:

a. When a vote was held in Kansas in 1855 to decide on slavery, thousands of Missouri residents illegally voted

b. This illegal vote gave Kansas slavery when its residents voted against it

c. In 1856, a civil war began between Kansas and Missouri (Bleeding Kansas)

D. From 1850 to 1856, sectionalism in America increased due to

  1. The growth of abolitionism due to the Fugitive Slave Law, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act

  2. The birth of sectional (not national) political parties like the Republicans

  3. Sectional tensions were becoming so bad that compromise was not an option

IV. 1856-1860: The slave issue became “irreconcilable” and led to the Civil War

A. The election of 1856 was the first time in which political parties represented sections of the country, not the nation

  1. Slavery became the most important political issue in American politics

  2. Even though the Republican Party lost in 1856, they realized that they had enough electoral votes to win the presidency without Southern support

B. Dred Scott v Sanford (1857)

  1. In 1857, a slave named Dred Scott sued for his freedom after traveling with his master from Missouri to Wisconsin

  2. The Dred Scott case presented the Supreme Court with 2 major questions: (a) Does Congress have the power to decide on slavery in the territories? (b) Is the Missouri Compromise constitutional?

  3. In Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857), the Supreme Court ruled:

a. Dred Scott had no right to sue because blacks are not citizens

b. Congress did not have the power to stop slavery in western territories so the Missouri Compromise was ruled unconstitutional

c. Northern abolitionists were furious

C. Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)

  1. In 1858, Democrat Stephen Douglas ran against Republican Abraham Lincoln for the Illinois Senate

  2. Lincoln was unknown at the time, but during the campaign he argued that Congress must stop the spread of slavery (free soil argument); Lincoln lost the Senate election, but his argument against slavery made him a popular national figure

D. John Brown’s Raid at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia (1859)

  1. In 1859, abolitionist John Brown led an unsuccessful raid on a federal armory at Harper’s Ferry, VA in an attempt to free slaves in a massive slave rebellion

  2. Brown was caught and executed, but he was seen as a martyr by many in the North

  3. Southerners believed Northerners were using violence to end slavery

E. The Election of 1860 proved to be the final straw for the South:

  1. Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln who argued for “free soil” and a strong national government

  2. Democrats in the North and South were divided over the issue of slavery: (a) Northern Democrats nominated Stephen Douglas who argued for popular sovereignty; (b) Southern Democrats nominated John Breckenridge who argued for states’ rights and the protection of slavery

  3. Lincoln won the election without a single Southern electoral vote; Southerners assumed slavery would soon be abolished and began to discuss the possibility of secession (breaking away) from the USA

  4. In December 1860, South Carolina became the first state to secede from the Union; In 1861, more Southern states seceded and the Civil War between North and South began

F. From 1856 to 1860, sectionalism in America increased due to:

  1. Slavery became the most important political issue of the time

  2. Growing Southern fear that the North would end slavery (John Brown’s raid, election of Lincoln)

  3. No compromise could prevent a Civil War between the North and South