Unit 2 - PSYC 2400

Unit 2: Police Psychology

Police selection

The process used to select police officers
- Most applications are unsuccessful
Either by screening out or selecting in
Applicants are assessed for:
Physical fitness
Cognitive abilities
Personality
Job-related abilities
Who can apply to the RCMP?
- Canadian citizen
- Good character
- Proficient in English or French
- Canadian high school diploma
- Valid driver’s license
- 19 years old
- Physically fit & meet medical assessment
- Be willing to relocate anywhere in Canada
(A very brief) History of police selection
- Used since the early 1900s
- 1917: IQ tests used to select officers
- 1950s: psychological and psychiatric screening standards in major forces
- Today
  - Background checks
  - Medical exams
  - Selection interviews
  - Cognitive tests
  - Personality assessments
Provincial and Territorial differences
- Some drig test, some don’t
- Some need letters of references
- All agencies: background checks & medical exams
- Most use cognitive ability tests and personality tests
Selection Process Involves two stages:
- 1. Job analysis
  - Define what knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) make a good police officer
  - Conducted by a psychologist and police organization
    - Surveys/Interviews/Focus groups
    - Observation
    - Issues:
      - Not fool proof
      - Stability of KSAs over time for the same rank
      - Different KSAs are required for different jobs
      - Disagreement on KSAs across various rank
  - Essential KSAs (everyone agrees on)
    - Honesty
    - Reliability
    - Communication skills
    - Problem-solving skills
    - Team player
    - Highly motivated
    - Empathy
- 2. Construction and validation
  - Develop an instrument to measure KSAs and ensure they are related to performance
  - Predictive validity
    - The ability of an instrument to predict how well an applicant will perform as a police officer
  - Deciding on performance measures
    - e.g., punctuality, commendations, peer ratings
  - (Different sectors might use different performances) Different performance measures provide different results/images of an officer
  - There is no evidence that one measure is better than another
Selection instruments
- 1. Selection interview
  - Selection interview:
    - Very common
    - Semi-structured questions
    - The goal is to determine if the applicant has KSAs
  - Problems:
    - Research on predictive validity is mixed
    - Low agreement between two different interviewers
    - Not very reliable it just depends on the interviewees read of the intervewee
- 2. Psychological tests
  - Cognitive ability tests
  - Personality tests
  - Measures aptitude
    - Memory, logic, observation, comprehension
  - Used frequently in Canada
    - e.g., RCMP Police Aptitude Test (RPAT)
  - Moderate predictive validity
    - Better at predicting training performance rather than on-the-job performance
  - RPAT example: Which words complete the next sentence?
    - My partner and ____ went to the home and ____ knocked on the door.
      - a) I, began
      - b) me, began
      - c) me, begun
      - d) I, begun
  - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) (567 t/f questions)
    - (developed to) Identifies psychopathology (e.g., depression, paranoia)
    - Screening-out tool
    - Moderate predictive validity (Scogin et al., 1995)
  - Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI)
    - Developed specifically for police selection
    - Measures personality and behaviour
      - Stress reactions
      - Interpersonal difficulties
      - Alcohol/drug use
    - Better predictive validity than the MMPI
    - Example questions:
      - I have never cheated on an exam (True/False)
      - I have been suspended from school (True/False)
- 3. Physical tests (PARE)
  - Physical Abilities Requirement Evaluation (PARE)
  - Police Officers Physical Abilities Test (POPAT)
  - Physical Readiness Evaluation for Police (PREP)
  - Alberta Physical Readiness Evaluation for Police (A-PREP)
- 4. Assessment centres (situational tests)
  - Use of situational tests
    - Simulation of real-world police tasks
      - Leadership
      - Decision making
      - Problem solving
    - Applicant behaviour is assessed by multiple observers
    - Use of situational tests
    - Simulation of real-world police tasks
    - Applicant behaviour is assessed by multiple observers
  - Work simulation exercise
    - Watch video clips & identify law violations
  - Domestic disturbance exercise
    - Resolve dispute
  - Homeowner complaint exercise
    - Deal with homeowner and high-priority call
  - Witness probing exercise
    - Interview witnesses of armed robbery
- 5. Integrity evaluation
  - Polygraph
  - Drug tests

Police discretion

Police discretion: knowing when to abide by the law and when to allow for some latitude
Why allow discretion?
- Limited resources
- Some laws are minor/vague
- Alienate the public (cant be too strict)
- Overwhelm the justice system (e.g., people in court, prison)
Must live with consequences… (need to trust the law so they need to build trust with the public)

Youth crime

Discretion encouraged
Approximately 80% of police forces attempt to handle informally
The belief that formal sanctions are not an effective response
Responses include:
- Community referrals
- Resolution conferences
Dealing with those with Mental Illness
- “Pose a danger to self or others” or “causing a serious disturbance”
- Three options:
  - Informal resolution
  - Escort to a psychiatric facility
  - Arrest
- Leads to criminalization (Hoch, 2009)
- More likely to deal with the police

Use of Force

Use of force is rare
- 0.07% to 1.5% of interactions
- Mostly male (94%)
- Most people impaired (88%)
Policies change over time (e.g., users of Tasers)
- Old policy: when an individual not cooperating
- New policy: when an individual is exhibiting active resistance and causing (or will likely cause) bodily harm (Braidwood inquiry) - after situation in vancouver airport

Canada’s Use of Force Model

Guideline for needed level of force
Instructs officer to consider:
- Situational factors
- Subject’s behaviours
- Tactical considerations
Remain one step higher than the subject

Levels of resistance

1. Cooperative
- No resistance; compliance
2. Non-Cooperative
- No physical resistance; verbal defiance
3. Resistant
- Pulling away; running away
4. Combative
- Threats; Applying force (e.g., punching, kicking)
5. Showing the Potential to Cause Grievous Bodily Harm or Death
- Using baseball, gun, or threats to hit th egeneral public

Use of force response levels

Officer presence
Dialogue
Empty hands
Compliance tools
Lethal force

Use of force standard: one-plus-one -> Police officers have the authority to use higher level of force than that with which they are confronted with

The Case of Robert Dziekański

RCMP criticized for actions
RCMP claimed:
- Taser was the last resort
- OC (i.e., pepper) spray is not an option
- Only 3 officers responded
- Failed to attequly assess the situation and misrepresenting what was occurring by using force

Sources of Police Stress

The way ppl perceive stress varies from officer to officer
Occupational stressors
- Human suffering, shift work
Intra-organizational stressors - usually most stressful
- Excessive paperwork
- Lack of advancement
- Lack of resources
Inter-organizational stressors - second highest most stressful
- Jurisdictional isolation
Criminal justice stressors
- Frustration with court and correctional systems
Public stressors
- Distorted views of police
- Ineffective referral agencies (social services)
Consequences of stress
- Physical
  - Cardiovascular disease
  - Digestive disorders
- Psychological (coming from chronic stress)
  - Depression
  - PTSD
  - Substance abuse
- Job-related
  - Absenteeism
  - Early retirement
  - Being less affective
  - Less
Prevention and Management
- Programs used to manage police stress:
  - Critical incident/psychological debriefings
  - Resiliency training
  - Changing maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., alcohol, withdrawal)
    - Promoting adaptive coping skills
      - Communication
      - Control response, not situation
    - Positive impact on health (& increases wor flow)