Unit 2 Exam

Janissaries

·       the Ottoman empire’s institution, an elite fighting army force

·       infantrymen who were most effective because they used gunpowder weapons (muskets, cannons, etc.)

·       produced by the Devshirme system

o    Ottomans entered the Balkans, took young Christian boys to Istanbul, and educated them in Islam

o   entered into the government or the Janissary army based on aptitude

·       essentially the Sultan’s slaves or private army, as they couldn’t own property or have families

·       numbers declined with 17^th century Ottoman decline, allowing them to own property, have families

o   benefitted socially but the empire’s efficiency declined with it

·       reflects how Ottomans incorporated others into their military system

Ismail I (1487 – 1524)

·       Kurdish, Persian, and Greek

·       part of the Safavid Brotherhood (Sufi religious movement), eventually became leader and revered

·       1501: conquered most of the Persian plateau and established the Safavid Dynasty

o   dynasty was Turkish and controlled a majority Persian population

·       forcibly converted existing Persian population to Shia Islam to prohibit influence of Sunni Ottomans

·       recruited Shia scholars to come to Persia and teach the population about its principles

The Safavid Empire (1501 – 1736)

·       a native Iranian dynasty from Azerbaijan

·       established Shi’a Islam as Iran’s official religion, uniting provinces under a single Iranian sovereignty

o   differentiated Iran from the Ottomans, who were Sunnis

o   distinguished Persian culture from Arabi culture, as the sacred sites of Sunni Islam would always be in the Arabian peninsula

o   Shi’a Islam’s sacred sites were closer in Iraq, which was captured by the empire in 1623 (though surrendered to the Ottomans in 1639)

·       generally ruled over a peaceful and prosperous empire

o   empire’s demise was met with unrest

o   allied with European powers to protect from the Ottomans

·       origins came from Sufi order (“the Safavi Yeh”), which flourished in Azerbaijan since the early 14^th century

o   founder was mystic Sheikh Safi al-Din (1254 – 1334)

Women in the Ottoman Empire

·       had more rights and opportunities than other regions (Europe, East Asia, etc.)

·       rights were determined by Islamic law, Ottoman (Turkish) traditions, local customs, and social class

·       primary responsibility was to manage the household and raise kids, as they had no largely formal public role

·       elite women (“harem”, elite family), wielded great influence through the men they were attached to

o   common women had to work and make money in public

·       could hold property, initiate divorce under certain conditions (abuse, neglect, etc.), kept control of the dowry

o   women brought wealth to a marriage as part of an arrangement — though it was often immediately put under the husband’s control, women kept it

Akbar (1542 – 1605)

·       most famous Mughal emperor, ruled from 1556 to 1605 with religious tolerance

·       solved the issue of Sunni minority Mughal rulers controlling a Hindu majority in India

·       stopped the jizya (tax on non-Muslims)

·       integrated Hindus into the government and granted them religious freedom, as well as legal accommodation, for political and social stability

o   incorporated Hindu elites (Rajput) into civil and military endeavors

o   allowed traditional Hindu law to govern Hindu communities (no Sharia Muslim law)

o   married Hindu princesses

·       accommodated Buddhist and Sikh communities in India

·       attempted to blend all ideas and beliefs into one religion, “Dinialaji” (Divine Truth), though it did not last beyond his lifetime

·       ruled the greatest cotton-growing region in the world (textiles, spices), no navy because of its establishment by a Central Asian nomad

Mansabdars

·       elite governors of the Mughal Empire with control over large, local territories

·       emperor gave land grants to government officials — Mansabdars had legal authority over them and collected their taxes

·       comprised of Muslims and Hindus

Conquest of Siberia

·       a Russian empire endeavor made to search for resources, primarily animal furs

·       Siberia was located in the eastern portion of Eurasia, with a mostly snowy tundra forest environment

·       occurred during the Little Ice Age

o   a time of general global cooling, which affected Europe particularly

o   Europe needed fur for coats to keep warm, as it enabled conquest

·       Russians entered and slaughtered Siberians with epidemic disease (similar to Europeans in the New World), quickly building a Russian majority

o   Siberians become Russofied and the region assimilates into Russia

Aurangzeb (1618 – 1707)

·       second most famous Mughal emperor, ruled from 1658 to 1707 (50 years after Akbar)

·       despite being his grandson, he held opposite views from Akbar

·       reversed the tolerance policy because he saw weakness in it, believing Islamic traditions are key

·       policies antagonized the empire’s Hindu majority

o   reimposed the jizya

o   favored Muslims in the government

o   imposed prohibition on Hindu temple buildings

o   imposed traditional Islamic governing law over the entire population

·       completed the conquest of Southern India, campaigned northwest Pakistan and Afghanistan

·       military overstretch eventually lead to the empire’s weakening

o   continued declining after his death due to rebellions, secession, etc.

Cossacks

·       instrument of the Russian imperial expansion

·       negotiated with the Russian empire — if they went and conquered Eurasia for the Russian empire, they would be granted autonomy in the conquered areas

Sikhism

·       northern Indian 15^th century syncretic faith

o   mostly a combination of Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism

·       founded by Guru Nanak

o   leaders are called gurus

·       highlights equality among all people (unlike Hinduism and Islam), doesn’t recognize caste (unlike Hinduism)

·       promotes meditation as the primary spiritual practice

·       followers are refrained from cutting their hair, instead usually tying them in turbans

·       often rebelled against the Mughal authority, thus becoming skilled warriors and were not able to be completely controlled

·       during the British takeover of India, Sikhs were the primary soldiers for order

Peter the Great and Westernization

·       greatest Russian tzar, ruled from 1689 - 1725

·       before his rule, Russia significantly fell behind the West — he knew reform was needed or Russia would fall to the West

·       traveled West, saw European technology and worked in a Dutch shipyard just to see

o   adopted Western technology (gunpowder, first Russian navy)

·       implemented programs influenced by Westernization in Russia and reformed the education system: math, applied science, and Western culture

·       made St. Petersburg the new capital as it was closer to the West

o   modelled after Parisian architecture and Versailles

·       attacked Russians with long beards, jumped people by shaving to make Russia more like other European countries

·       doesn’t change economy, keeps peasantry and serfdom until 1861

Zheng He’s Expeditions

·       Muslim

·       expensive voyages that included hundred of ships and thousands of sailors

·       made to represent the influence of Chinese power under the early Ming dynasty following the end of the Mongol empire

o   requested tribute from different rulers, various gifts to the Ming that indicated submission

·       after Mongol Yuan rule, the Ming dynasty did everything it could to reinforce traditional Chinese institutions and superiority

o   essentially a counter-reformation to Mongol rule

·       ideas were prominent in the palace but distrusted by Confucianism

o   emperor wanted to end the expeditions and instead focus on securing the Northern border (Great Wall of China)

Encomienda System

·       the way the Spanish tried exploiting the New World to compensate for its lack of resources

·       governments gave conquistadors (encomenderos) grants of land and control of the land’s resources to develop it agriculturally

o   given control of Native Americans

o   agriculture was produced for sale globally

·       owners were obligated to grant natives legal protection (as they were under Spanish rule), convert the natives to Catholicism, and develop the land

o   most conquistadors did not Christianize natives or protect them, only accepting the system for its monetary benefits and ability to exploit natives

·       when people wrote about abuses in the New World, they often cited the encomienda system

New Laws of 1542

·       Spanish imperial response to the abuses of Native Americans in the New World

o   attempted to control Spanish colonists and protect Native Americans

·       stopped the granting of encomiendas and ended institution

·       established legal protections for Native Americans

·       unfortunately, lack of enforcement meant it made no significant impact

o   laws were regularly ignored and abuse continued

o   encomenderos in Peru revolted against law enforcers for making them respect human rights

·       influenced by Bartolome de las Casas’ writing

The Spanish Reconquista

·       started with the rise and spread of Islam in 711 CE

·       Christian Spaniards recolonized Europe after previous Muslim takeover due to the spread of Islam

·       711 – 1492 CE: Spain is unified as a Christian kingdom again after a 700-year Muslim takeover

·       unfortunately for Spanish nobility, the new reign gave them no purpose or work

o   their previous job was to fight off Muslims

o   Spaniards traveled to the New World, seeing themselves as a continuation of the Spanish Reconquista by fighting against Native American infidels

Hacienda System

·       encomienda’s successors in Central and South America

o   encomienda system was the initial method of organizing land

·       farms and ranches owned by creoles (individuals of European heritage born in the New World, an economic elite — landowners, merchants, etc.)

·       produced food to be sold locally (unlike encomiendas)

·       employed natives as peons (wage laborers), who were paid low wages, overtaxed, and often falling into debt

o   provided a controlled labor force

Bartolome de las Casas

·       Spaniard defender of the Native Americans

·       father was a conquistador

·       opposers were influenced by aristocratic ideals that people are natural slaves, and believed slavery was justified because Native Americans were inferior

The Great Dying

·       a result of diseases brought over by Europeans to the New World

·       devastated Native American populations, wiping out over 90%

·       smallpox, measles, typhus, etc.

Mercantilism

·       most dominating economic concept at the time, adopted by most European states

·       based on the idea that the power of a state is correlated to how much wealth it has, which required massive volumes of exporting because it brought in more wealth

·       decreased importation, as maintaining imports decreased wealth

o   tariffs were used to incentivize trading domestically and reduce the flow of wealth

o   colonies provided raw materials (timber, precious metals, etc.) to manufacture goods at home while also providing new markets to sell to

Joint Stock Market

·       a response to global maritime trade

·       Europeans were trading around the world, though the costs of ships and crew were expensive and risky (hitting a storm meant investments were gone)

·       companies accumulated capital from investors to pay for overseas expeditions — if it failed, they didn’t lose money; if it succeeded, profits were shared with investors

o   distributed the risk and profit of ventures

·       Dutch East India Company, British East India Company, etc.

Dutch East India vs. British East India

·       both joint stock companies, similar in design

·       signed charters with governments promising that they could monopolize trade — if the companies conquered areas, they could govern them

·       Dutch made capital of Jakarta and India, enslaving populations and relying on a plantation economy

o   primarily traded spices

·       British took over the Indian Ocean, placed most plantations on the coast of India

o   primarily traded textiles

Francis Xavier

·       Jesuit and companion of Ignatius of Loyola

·       was missionized in India and became the first missionary to visit Japan, building its first churches

·       mission processes were successful and continued beyond his lifetime

o   as a result, the Japanese government shut the whole thing down and isolated Japan from Jesuit influence

Portuguese Trading Post Empire

·       first to reach the Indian Ocean, reached India in 1458 and took over caravels (ships with mounted cannons)

·       Asians didn’t have armed ships, allowing the Portuguese to dominate

o   forced rulers to allow them to set up forts on their coasts (India, Maldives, Persian Gulf), used forts to control trade without colonization

·       forced traders to buy a trading pass from them in order to trade — without a pass, they were able to raid ships and take crews and cargo

Japanese Trade and Expulsion of Europeans

·       Japanese traded within East Asia and SE Asia

·       Europeans successfully missionized Japan and converted 300,000 to Christianity

·       a new dynasty, the Tokugawa Shogunate, didn’t recognize Catholics owing allegiance to the Pope in Rome as it was a threat to the dynasty’s rule and unity

·       outlawed religion, expelled missionaries, forced Japanese Christians to renounce their faith

o   caused many to go underground

·       1635: the Tokugawa Shogunate isolated Japan from the outside world to limit foreign influence

·       travel into Japan was restricted without explicit government permission

o   reduced Japanese trade, particularly with southern Europe, but still desired European technology and science

o   only allowed the Dutch to trade, in Deshima, because the Dutch were Protestants and could offer a facet of European technology

The Silver Trade

·       when the New World was conquered, Europeans found large amounts of silver in Potosi (Bolivia) and Mexico

o   used native labor to mine and become the richest European kingdom

·       silver was used to facilitate trade and purchase East Asian goods

o   brought to Manila, used to buy goods in China, spices in Southeast Asia, and textiles in India

o   facilitated the emergence of a global trade network

·       Europeans ended up purchasing so much from China that the latter became huge silver owners and began taxing silver (silver drain)

o   negatively impacted Chinese society because without silver, you had minimal economic opportunity

·       in Spain, prices inflated due to silver trade and the Spanish wasted silver money on war instead of investing into agriculture, business, or manufacturing

·       became a mainstream form of currency

Navigational Technologies

·       made trade possible, adopted by European states, enabled sailing

·       many technologies originated in Song China (magnetic compass, stern post rudder, etc.)

·       Portuguese created the caravel, smaller ships with lateen, sailed for wind and was relatively low draft

o   ample for exploration as it could travel along the coast and up rivers (Columbus sailed with three caravels)

Spanish Philippines

·       claimed by Spain despite being under Portuguese control per the Treaty of Tortusua

·       converted many Asians to Catholicism except on southern islands, which had a Muslim stronghold

·       exploited native labor, Manila became the colonial capital of the Philippines and a dumping ground for New World silver

·       abused local populations which caused local revolts, though none were successful

Vasco da Gama

·       a symbol of Portuguese navigation technology

·       was the first person to fully circumnavigate Africa and reach India, ending the 70-year East Sea race

First Maroon War

·       a result of resistance to colonial rule

·       occurred in Jamaica between 1728 and 1740

·       conflict between British authorities and maroon colonies (communities of escaped slaves in inaccessible areas, living with the indigenous)

o   points of resistance in South, Central, and North America

·       the British could not conquer maroon colonies, and they eventually signed a treaty recognizing each other’s independence and autonomy

o   maroon colonists agreed to not purposely free slaves or take refugee slaves

The Great Circuit

·       a trade network that developed because of the New World and the Columbian Exchange, involved the Transatlantic Slave Trade

·       started in Europe with colonizers taking commodities such as gunpowder, muskets, ammunition, iron bars, textiles, and alcohol

·       Europeans took commodities down to Africa and traded them for black African slaves

o   took slaves to plantations in Brazil and traded them for cash crops (indigo, tobacco, sugar, cotton)

o   took cash crops to Europe, sold them for profit, took commodities from Europe, cycle continued

·       was the most profitable trade network in human history at the time

The Islamic Slave Trade

·       preexisted the transatlantic slave trade

·       in the Indian Ocean, slaves were taken from East Africa and brought to India

·       in the trans-Saharan trade network, slaves were taken from West Africa and sold into WANA slave markets

·       primary use of African slaves was domestic service or as concubines for Muslim elites — women and children were valued more highly as slaves

o   no need for agricultural workers because of peasants

·       slaves were only one type of commodity for both networks and were not the most valuable

·       when the Portuguese explored the West African coast, they picked up slaves and sold them in WANA Muslim slave markets to pay for the expedition, becoming a part of the trans-Saharan trade network

o   not exclusively trade, as it also included sale with gold and ivory

o   other Europeans extracted the idea from the Portuguese

Prince Henry the Navigator

·       third son of the king

·       organized, planned, and sponsored Portuguese expeditions down the West African coast to reach the Indian Ocean

o   sponsored Vasco da Gama

·       estate located in Sagres, which became a stronghold of naval technology and knowledge

o   people would sail, bring back knowledge, and plan new expeditions

European Slave Factories

·       factories were warehouses, a holding place for goods

·       places on the West African coast where Europeans were permitted to build buildings to hold slaves in before shipping

·       showed the African-European collaboration for slavery — Africans took slaves and brought them to the coast for hold in factories

o   African slave traders held the upper hand and were able to negotiate with Europeans in exchange for gunpowder weaponry

Sugar Plantations

·       primary way in which the Spaniards and Portuguese made money

o   due to lack of resources in the New World, they built plantations modeled after the Eastern Mediterranean (Cyprus, Sicily, etc.)

·       introduced African slave labor into the New World because Native Americans were sparse and hard to control (familiar with the land, help from locals, etc.)

Pueblo Revolts

·       a result of colonial resistance

·       conflict between Native Americans and the Spaniards in Southwest USA

o   colonizers forcibly converted natives to Christianity, stole arable land, heavily taxed natives, and executed leaders for defying authority

·       Native Americans successfully revolted for 12 years and killed hundreds of Spaniards

o   Spain eventually reconquered

Metacom (King Phillip’s) War

·       North American colonial revolution

·       Metacom was a Wampanoag leader

·       British colonizers violated a treaty made with the Native Americans, which lead to resistance

o   defeated Metacom and the natives, proceeded to steal their land

·       was an important role in developing independent American identity, as the war was won solely by American colonists

o   showed large independence that was ignored by the British crown

Mulattoes

·       the offspring of European men and black African women

·       largest population located in Brazil because there were the most slaves

·       while mestizos were largely the product of marriage, mulattoes were largely the product of rape

·       similar to mestizos, they had more rights than natives and slaves but had less than creoles

Plantation Agriculture

·       made for the purpose of growing cash crops

·       labor intensive

·       requires slave labor, from African slaves primarily

The Inquisition

·       institution of the Catholic Church to root out heresy (people who disagree with the Church)

·       office with a secret police force to investigate heresy, arrest, interrogate, and execute people

·       during the Protestant reformation, counter-Reformation expanded the Inquisition to root out heresy (Protestants, Protestant sympathizers, Protestant ideas, and Protestant literature)

Matteo Ricci

·       the most famous Jesuit, who traveled to China and developed the Jesuit strategy

·       learned Chinese language and culture

o   became an expert on Confucianism after familiarizing himself and comparing it with Catholic ideas to show similarities

·       used a strategy of converting Chinese elites to Catholicism by pointing out similarities between Confucianism and Catholicism

·       a great mathematician, cartographer, linguist, thinker, etc.

·       first European ever allowed to enter the Forbidden City (Chinese imperial palace)

King Henry VIII and the Anglican Church

·       had six marriages  — wanted to annul his first but Pope Clemet VII didn’t allow him

o   separated England from the Catholic faith

o   brought the Protestant Reformation to England, created the Anglican Church (Protestant) and became the head

·       brought the Protest Reformation to England, created the Anglican Church (Protestant) and became the head

o   not that different from the Catholic Church, just separate from the Pope

o   anger from Protestants who didn’t like either church (i.e. Puritans)

The Thirty-Year’s War

·       Protestantism reached Germany, where princes decided independently between Protestant and Catholic

o   war broke out — question of “who decides whether citizens are Protestant or Catholic?”, mostly in Germany

·       1618 – 1648: killed 30% of the German population through famine, disease, violence, etc.

·       ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which established boundaries with states

o   stated that a state’s ruler decides the religion

Wahhabi Islam

·       a reform movement within Islam that started in the Arabian Peninsula after the decline of the Ottoman Empire

·       Abdul al Wahhab (1703 – 1792) blamed the movement’s decline on Ottoman Islam not being pure enough

o   such as idolatry (worship of idols like Muslim saints, natural sites, and the prophet Muhammed)

·       leads to reform a movement to purify Islam (Wahhabism)

·       King Saud adopted Wahhabism in his state, and similar to the Protestant Reformation, it brought back the original principles of the faith

Puritans

·       a Protestant sect in England that was critical of the Anglican Church

o   belief that it was too Catholic and did not contain enough of the original Christian faith

·       migrated to the New World (Northeastern MA) during the 17^th century and created some of the first colonies in Massachusetts

o   wanted to create a new religious community without corruption

o   while some colonists wanted to replicate the society they came from, Puritans wanted to make a better society

Council of Trent

·       18-year meeting

·       Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation, which founded the principles of counter-Reformation

o   aimed to get people involved in Catholicism again and decided they were right all along

·       doubled down on the 7 Principles of Sacrament, allowed indulgences, reaffirmed Papel infallibility and authority, and priestly celibacy

·       agreed that priesthood should be better, as some priests were ignorant and corrupt which was not well representative of the Church

·       enabled priest schools to learn to read Latin, learn about Catholicism, and combat Protestantism — seminaries

Jesuits

·       founded by Ignacio of Loyola, who was wounded in battle and turned to God

·       were very familiar with Catholicism as the most well-educated people/successful missionaries at the time

·       integrated Catholicism into local ideals — instead of telling locals their beliefs were incorrect, they pointed out similarities

·       opposition to the Reformation movement