Longitudinal Study – Research in which the same individuals are studied over a long period.
Cross-Sectional Study – Research that compares individuals of different ages at the same point in time.
Case Study – In-depth study of a single individual or small group.
Naturalistic Observation – Studying behavior in its natural environment without interference.
Experimentation Ethics – Researchers cannot expose participants to harm; they must follow ethical guidelines.
Teratogens – Harmful agents like drugs, alcohol, or mercury that can negatively impact prenatal development.
Critical Period – A specific time during which an organism is particularly sensitive to environmental influences.
Effects of Teratogens – Different body parts and organs are affected at different times during prenatal development.
Rooting Reflex – Newborns turn their head when their cheek is touched.
Motor Development – Follows a universal sequence, but timing varies (e.g., holding a bottle before fine motor control develops).
Maturation – Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.
Assimilation – Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.
Accommodation – Adjusting schemas to incorporate new information.
Object Permanence – Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
Conservation – Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.
Egocentrism – The inability of a child to take another person’s perspective.
Telegraphic Speech – Early speech stage where children use two-word phrases.
Fluid Intelligence – The ability to solve new problems quickly; declines with age.
Crystallized Intelligence – Accumulated knowledge and skills; remains stable or improves with age.
Language Acquisition – Best learned at a young age due to brain plasticity.
Theory of Mind – Understanding that others have thoughts and perspectives different from one’s own.
Attachment Styles – Secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and disorganized.
Parenting Styles:
Authoritative – High warmth and moderate discipline; encourages open communication.
Authoritarian – Strict, high expectations with little warmth.
Permissive – High warmth, few rules or structure.
Neglectful – Uninvolved in child’s life.
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy) – Learning to trust caregivers.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood) – Developing independence.
Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood) – Beginning to take control of actions.
Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle Childhood) – Comparing abilities with peers.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) – Establishing personal identity.