The European Moment in World History, 1750-1914
PART FIVE: The European Moment in World History, 1750-1914
Table of Contents
Chapter 17: Atlantic Revolutions and Their Echoes, 1750–1914
Chapter 18: Revolutions of Industrialization, 1750-1914
Chapter 19: Internal Troubles, External Threats: China, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan, 1800-1914
Chapter 20: Colonial Encounters, 1750–1914
The Big Picture: European Centrality and the Problem of Eurocentrism
Duration covered: 1750-1914, referred to as the "long nineteenth century."
Two major themes emerge:
Creation of modern societies: Outgrowth of the Scientific, French, and Industrial revolutions originating in Western Europe.
Expansion of European power: The ability of modern societies to assert dominance globally through both formal empires and informal means of influence.
Key Ideas Emerging from Modern Societies
Concepts such as:
Progress
Constitutional government
Political democracy
Socialism
Nationalism
Feminism
Opposition to slavery
Mechanisms of European Expansion
Formal Empire: Governing territories like India, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
Informal Control: Economic, military, and diplomatic pressures on "independent" states, including China, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire.
European and North American societies significantly increased their influence and power dynamics in world history by the early 20th century.
Eurocentric Geography and History
Maps and historical narratives often centered on Europe, resulting in:
Europe depicted at the world's center, geographically and historically.
Other regions defined by their distance from Europe.
Influential writings, such as William O. Swinton’s assertion of Aryan superiority, perpetuated notions of a linear progression towards modernity, implying inherent European superiority.
Countering Eurocentrism in Historical Narratives
Five Suggested Approaches:
Historical Contextualization: Acknowledging that the European moment has been brief in world history, comparing it to other historical periods that featured cultural flowering in various civilizations, including Greeks, Indians, Arabs, and Chinese.
European dominance is a relatively recent phenomenon.
Interaction with Other Cultures: The rise of Europe was influenced by interactions with other cultures, such as:
Withdrawal of Chinese naval fleets
Native American resistance and divisions
Islamic science bolstering the Scientific Revolution
The reliance on local elites for maintaining control.
Resistance and Rebellion: Acknowledge that European control was not always absolute, often confronted by resistance, which required modifications in colonial policies.
Local Utilization of European Ideas: Many groups adapted European ideologies for their own contexts to improve local conditions or assert their own identities, such as:
Use of railroads by Hindus for pilgrimages.
The adoption of egalitarian ideas during the Haitian Revolution by enslaved Africans.
Independent Developments: Recognizing ongoing historical developments and social changes in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere despite European influence, and how these shaped cultural identities and political dynamics.
Landmarks of the European Moment 1750-1914
1775: Start of the American Revolution.
1789-1799: French Revolution occurs.
1800: Industrial Revolution begins; abolitionist movements gain momentum in Europe and the U.S.
1848: Publication of Karl Marx's Communist Manifesto; emergence of women’s rights conventions.
1886-1898: Abolishment of slavery in various nations, with Cuba and Brazil following.
1914: Outbreak of World War I marking the decline of European imperialism.
Chapter 17: Atlantic Revolutions and Their Echoes (1750-1914)
Comparative Context of Atlantic Revolutions and their Interconnections:
North American Revolution (1775-1787): Aimed at independence from British rule. Focused on retaining liberties rather than acquiring new ones; primarily benefited propertied white men.
French Revolution (1789-1815): Outgrowth of social conflict within France involving all three estates, leading to a thorough social and political upheaval.
Haitian Revolution (1791-1804): First successful slave revolt; redefinition of citizenship rights in post-colonial context.
Spanish American Revolutions (1810-1825): Led by creole elites influenced by earlier revolutions, resulting in varying degrees of independence across Latin America.
Repercussions of the Atlantic Revolutions
They collectively inspired movements to:
Abolish slavery
Expand suffrage
Promote gender equality (Emergence of Feminist movements).
Key Philosophical and Structural Changes
Rise of Nationalism: Assertion of national identities influenced by revolution and war.
Emergence of Feminist Movements: Inspired largely by revolutionary ideals of equality and rights.
Reflection Questions
What were the achievements and limitations of the Atlantic revolutions?
Did revolutions genuinely promote freedom or were they a reaction to established authority?
How did these revolutions facilitate or hinder the growth of national identities and gender equality?
Further Study Recommendations
Explore works on nationalism, gender identity, and the global implications of the Atlantic revolutions as discussed in various historical texts and analyses.
PART FIVE: The European Moment in World History, 1750-1914
Table of Contents
Chapter 17: Atlantic Revolutions and Their Echoes, 1750–1914
Chapter 18: Revolutions of Industrialization, 1750-1914
Chapter 19: Internal Troubles, External Threats: China, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan, 1800-1914
Chapter 20: Colonial Encounters, 1750–1914
The Big Picture: European Centrality and the Problem of Eurocentrism
The "Long Nineteenth Century" (1750-1914): A period defined by the dramatic transformation of human society through dual processes of internal revolution and global expansion.
Two Primary Pillars of Modernity:
Creation of Modern Societies: The convergence of the Scientific Revolution (new ways of knowledge), the French Revolution (new political structures), and the Industrial Revolution (new modes of production). These sparked a transition from agrarian-based societies to urban, technological ones.
Expansion of European Power: By 1914, Europeans or people of European descent controlled roughly 84\% of the world's landmass, establishing a global hegemony unprecedented in history.
Key Ideological Shifts
Progress: The belief that human society can be intentionally improved through reason and technology.
Constitutionalism and Democracy: Movements to limit the power of monarchs through written laws and to expand the franchise to the "common man."
Socialism: A critique of industrial capitalism, advocating for collective ownership to reduce economic inequality.
Nationalism: The idea that "the people" who share a culture or language constitute a nation and should have their own sovereign state.
Abolitionism and Feminism: Radical shifts in social hierarchy, challenging the ethics of chattel slavery and the domestic confinement of women.
Mechanisms of Global Domination
Formal Imperialism: Direct political and military rule. Examples include the British Raj in India, the French in West Africa, and the "Scramble for Africa" following the Berlin Conference (1884-1885).
Informal Imperialism: Economically-driven dominance often referred to as "diplomacy by gunboat."
China: Forced into "unequal treaties" after the Opium Wars.
The Ottoman Empire: Became known as the "Sick Man of Europe" due to debt and military weakness.
Latin America: Experienced economic dependency on European and North American capital.
Addressing Eurocentric Bias
Geographic Distortion: The Mercator projection map famously enlarged Europe to appear larger than Africa, placing it at the visual center of the world.
Historical Exceptionalism: Early historians often viewed European success as an inherent trait (such as racial or religious superiority) rather than a result of specific historical contingencies.
Five Historical Perspectives to Counter Eurocentrism:
Contextualizing Dominance: Recognizing that Asia (specifically China and India) was the center of the global economy until roughly 1750, and European dominance is a brief, albeit significant, flash in the timeline of human civilization.
The Role of Contingency: Success was not inevitable. The collapse of the Chinese treasure fleets in the 15th century and the accidental discovery of the Americas provided Europe with a "windfall" of resources (silver and land).
Global Synthesis: The Scientific Revolution was built on the foundation of Islamic mathematics and Greek philosophy preserved by Arab scholars. Industrialization relied on raw materials from the Americas and markets in India.
Resistance as a Shaper of Policy: Colonialism was not a one-way street; constant rebellions forced European powers to adapt their methods, such as the Indian Rebellion of 1857 changing British administrative structures.
Active Adaptation: Non-Western peoples were not passive victims; they actively "modernized" on their own terms, such as the Meiji Restoration in Japan which adopted Western technology to prevent Western colonization.
Chronological Landmarks of the European Moment
1775-1783: The American Revolution establishes a republic based on Enlightenment principles.
1789: The French Revolution begins with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, triggering years of radical social change.
1791-1804: The Haitian Revolution occurs, representing the only successful slave revolt in world history.
1848: A year of failed revolutions across Europe; Karl Marx publishes the Communist Manifesto, predicting the downfall of capitalism.
1860s: Unification of Italy and Germany, creating new, powerful nation-states in central Europe.
1884-1885: Berlin Conference formalizes the partition of Africa.
1914: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand leads to World War I, signifying the beginning of the end for European global dominance.
Detailed Look: Chapter 17 - Atlantic Revolutions
North American Revolution: Primarily a political transition. Elites sought to preserve "English liberties" from new taxes (like the Stamp Act) and centralized British control. It left social structures (slavery and class) largely intact.
French Revolution: A deep social upheaval. Driven by the "Third Estate" (98\% of the population) against the clergy and nobility. It progressed from a constitutional monarchy to the radical "Reign of Terror" (1793-1794) under Robespierre.
Haitian Revolution: Triggered by the French Revolution but transformed into a war for racial equality and the total abolition of slavery. Under Toussaint Louverture, it became a beacon of hope for enslaved people globally and a source of fear for slave owners.
Spanish American Revolutions: Creoles (American-born whites) were initially reluctant to revolt because they feared a slave uprising like Haiti's. However, Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 created a power vacuum that forced their hand, leading to the liberation of South America under leaders like Simón Bolívar.