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South Africa 1960—1994: The People and the State

Introduction

The period from 1960 to 1994 in South African history is characterized by the apartheid regime's peak and eventual dismantling. This era witnessed significant resistance movements, state repression, and transformative political changes leading to the establishment of a democratic South Africa.

Apartheid System

  • Definition: Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination enforced by the National Party government from 1948 until the early 1990s.

  • Key Policies:

    • Population Registration Act (1950): Classified South Africans by race.

    • Group Areas Act (1950): Designated specific areas for different racial groups.

    • Pass Laws: Required black South Africans to carry passbooks to enter white areas.

    • Bantu Education Act (1953): Segregated education system with inferior resources for black students.

    • Separate Amenities Act (1953): Segregated public facilities.

Opposition to the Apartheid Regime (c.1960s)

The Consolidation of Apartheid

  • Separate Development: Policy enforcing racial segregation through legislation.

  • Bantustans: Designated areas for black South Africans, also known as "homelands." Intended to be self-governing but controlled by the South African government.

Nature and Extent of Support for Apartheid

  • Government Justifications: Economic development, security, and racial purity.

  • White Population: Benefited from economic and social privileges.

  • International Perspective: Mixed reactions; some countries supported for economic reasons, while others condemned apartheid.

Methods Used by Government to Maintain Apartheid

  • Legislation: Series of laws (e.g., Population Registration Act, Group Areas Act, Pass Laws).

  • Repression: Police and military force, censorship, and surveillance.

  • Propaganda: Promoted the idea of separate development.

Resistance to Apartheid

  • ANC: African National Congress, main opposition group. Advocated for racial equality and organized protests.

  • Freedom Charter: 1955 document calling for a non-racial, democratic South Africa.

  • Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK): Armed wing of the ANC, launched sabotage campaigns.

  • Poqo: Armed wing of the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), more militant and radical.

The Rivonia Trial (1963–1964)

  • Event: Key leaders of the ANC, including Nelson Mandela, were tried and sentenced to life imprisonment for sabotage.

  • Consequences: Decapitated ANC leadership, intensified underground resistance.

Growing Resistance and Repression (c.1970s)

Further Development of Resistance

  • Black Consciousness Movement: Led by Steve Biko, emphasized psychological liberation and black pride.

  • SASO: South African Students' Organization, promoted Black Consciousness among students.

  • Women's Groups: Played crucial roles in organizing protests and strikes.

  • Trade Unions: Significant role in mobilizing workers, notably the Durban workers' strike in 1973.

Soweto Uprising (1976)

  • Event: Students protested against the imposition of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction. Police responded with violence, resulting in hundreds of deaths.

  • Impact: International outrage, increased internal resistance, and the further mobilization of youth.

ANC in Exile

  • Operations: Conducted sabotage campaigns and garnered international support.

  • Alliances: Collaborated with other liberation movements and international bodies.

International Anti-Apartheid Movement

  • Campaigns: Boycotts, sanctions, and divestment campaigns aimed at isolating the South African regime.

  • Global Support: Garnered support from various governments, organizations, and individuals worldwide.

Impact of Resistance on Apartheid Regime

  • Economic Strain: Sanctions and boycotts hurt the economy.

  • Political Pressure: Increased calls for reform and negotiations.

Government Response

  • Repression: Increased use of police and military force, detention without trial, and censorship.

  • Reforms: Superficial reforms to appease critics without dismantling apartheid.

The Collapse of Apartheid (c.1980s–1994)

Growing Pressure on the Regime

  • Sanctions: Economic and cultural sanctions imposed by the international community.

  • United Democratic Front (UDF): Coalition of anti-apartheid groups, organized mass protests and strikes.

  • Mass Resistance: Increased protests, strikes, and civil disobedience campaigns.

Growth of Inkatha

  • Role: Zulu nationalist movement led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi.

  • Civil War: Conflict between Inkatha and ANC supporters, causing significant violence and instability.

Opposition to the 1983 Constitution

  • Tricameral Parliament: Created separate legislative bodies for whites, coloreds, and Indians, excluding black South Africans.

  • Rejection: Widely rejected by anti-apartheid groups as a sham reform.

State of Emergency (1985–1990)

  • Measures: Increased military presence, curfews, detention without trial, and censorship.

  • Impact: Temporarily suppressed resistance but increased international condemnation.

Divisions within the National Party

  • Internal Conflicts: Disagreements over how to handle growing resistance and international pressure.

  • Total Strategy: Efforts to suppress resistance and maintain control, ultimately failed.

Role of Leading Figures

  • FW de Klerk: President who initiated reforms, released Mandela, and negotiated the end of apartheid.

  • Nelson Mandela: Key leader of the ANC, released from prison in 1990, pivotal in negotiations.

  • Cyril Ramaphosa: Key negotiator for the ANC during the transition period.

Negotiations and Unbanning of Political Organizations

  • Unbanning: ANC, PAC, and South African Communist Party were unbanned in 1990.

  • Negotiations: Led to the dismantling of apartheid and the establishment of a democratic government.

First Free Elections (1994)

  • Outcome: ANC won the majority, Nelson Mandela became the first black president of South Africa.

  • Significance: Marked the official end of apartheid and the beginning of a new democratic era.

Key Events and Movements

Sharpeville Massacre (1960)

  • Date: March 21, 1960

  • Event: Police opened fire on a peaceful protest against pass laws in Sharpeville, killing 69 people and injuring 180.

  • Impact: International condemnation, increased internal resistance, and the banning of the African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC).

Rivonia Trial (1963-1964)

  • Defendants: Nelson Mandela and other ANC leaders.

  • Charges: Sabotage and attempts to overthrow the government.

  • Outcome: Mandela and others were sentenced to life imprisonment, highlighting the state's repression and drawing global attention to the anti-apartheid cause.

Soweto Uprising (1976)

  • Date: June 16, 1976

  • Event: Students protested against the mandatory use of Afrikaans in schools. The police responded with violence, leading to widespread riots and hundreds of deaths.

  • Impact: Galvanized international opposition to apartheid, increased internal resistance, and led to further government crackdowns.

Resistance Movements

African National Congress (ANC)

  • Founded: 1912

  • Role: Led the anti-apartheid struggle, initially through peaceful protests and later armed resistance via its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation).

  • Key Figures: Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo, Walter Sisulu.

Pan Africanist Congress (PAC)

  • Founded: 1959

  • Split from ANC: Over differences in strategy and ideology.

  • Role: Advocated for African nationalism and organized protests like the one in Sharpeville.

  • Key Figures: Robert Sobukwe.

Black Consciousness Movement (BCM)

  • Founded: 1969

  • Philosophy: Promoted black pride, self-reliance, and psychological liberation from white oppression.

  • Key Figures: Steve Biko.

  • Impact: Inspired student activism and uprisings like the Soweto Uprising.

International Pressure

Economic Sanctions

  • Implementation: Various countries imposed sanctions and trade embargoes on South Africa, targeting its economy.

  • Impact: Contributed to economic strain and pressured the government to reconsider apartheid policies.

Cultural and Academic Boycotts

  • Boycotts: International sporting bodies, artists, and academics refused to engage with South Africa, isolating it culturally and intellectually.

Anti-Apartheid Movements Abroad

  • Examples: The British Anti-Apartheid Movement, U.S. divestment campaigns.

  • Role: Raised awareness, lobbied governments, and supported South African resistance movements.

Government Reforms and Negotiations

Internal Reforms

  • 1980s Reforms: Limited attempts to reform apartheid, such as allowing trade unions and repealing some discriminatory laws.

  • Impact: Largely ineffective in quelling resistance and international criticism.

Release of Nelson Mandela

  • Date: February 11, 1990

  • Significance: Marked a turning point in the apartheid struggle, symbolizing a shift towards negotiation and reconciliation.

CODESA (Convention for a Democratic South Africa)

  • Dates: 1991-1993

  • Participants: Government, ANC, and other political groups.

  • Outcome: Laid the groundwork for a new democratic constitution and the end of apartheid.

Transition to Democracy

1994 General Election

  • Date: April 27, 1994

  • Significance: The first multiracial elections in South Africa, resulting in Nelson Mandela becoming the first black president.

  • Outcome: The establishment of a democratic government and the official end of apartheid.

Key Figures

Nelson Mandela

  • Role: Leader of the ANC, imprisoned for 27 years, and first black president of South Africa.

  • Impact: Symbol of resistance and reconciliation.

F.W. de Klerk

  • Role: Last apartheid-era president, who initiated reforms and negotiations leading to the end of apartheid.

  • Impact: Played a crucial role in the peaceful transition to democracy.

Desmond Tutu

  • Role: Anglican bishop and anti-apartheid activist.

  • Impact: Advocated for nonviolent resistance and later chaired the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

Social and Economic Impact of Apartheid

Education

  • Impact: Inferior education for black South Africans, limiting economic opportunities and perpetuating inequality.

  • Post-1994: Efforts to reform and equalize the education system.

Land and Housing

  • Impact: Forced removals and segregated housing policies dispossessed many black South Africans.

  • Post-1994: Land reform and housing projects aimed at redressing past injustices.

Economic Disparities

  • Impact: Racially skewed distribution of wealth and economic opportunities.

  • Post-1994: Policies like Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) to address economic inequality.

Key Terms and Definitions

  • Apartheid: System of racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa.

  • ANC: African National Congress, the main anti-apartheid political organization.

  • PAC: Pan Africanist Congress, a breakaway group from the ANC.

  • BCM: Black Consciousness Movement, promoting black pride and self-reliance.

  • Umkhonto we Sizwe: "Spear of the Nation," the ANC's armed wing.

  • Pass Laws: Laws requiring black South Africans to carry passbooks.

  • Bantu Education Act: Law enforcing segregated and inferior education for black South Africans.

  • CODESA: Convention for a Democratic South Africa, negotiations for democratic transition.

  • Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Body established to address past human rights violations.

  • Sharpeville Massacre: 1960 protest against pass laws where police killed 69 people.

  • Soweto Uprising: 1976 student protests against Afrikaans in schools, met with police violence.