World History Unit 2

Marxism (Karl Marx & Communist Thought)

• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels analyzed the consequences of capitalism, predicting that workers (proletariat) would overthrow business owners (bourgeoisie).

• The Communist Manifesto argued that history is driven by class struggles.

• Marx believed in a classless, stateless society where production was controlled by the people.

Significance: Marxism shaped labor movements, socialist policies, and revolutions (e.g., Russian Revolution of 1917). It remains influential in debates on economic systems.

Post-Napoleonic Europe (1800s)

I. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The Congress of Vienna was a pivotal moment in European history following Napoleon’s defeat, as conservative powers sought to restore the old order and prevent revolutionary changes.

A) Purposes

1. Map of Europe / Restore Balance of Power

• Napoleon had dramatically altered the European map; the Congress sought to restore pre-revolutionary borders while ensuring no single nation dominated Europe again.

• France was contained by strengthening neighboring states (e.g., the Netherlands and Prussia).

2. Maintain Absolute Rule / Suppress Liberal Ideas

• The Congress was deeply conservative, aiming to suppress revolutionary movements and prevent democratic uprisings.

• Monarchs regained their thrones, and new alliances (e.g., Holy Alliance) were formed to prevent further revolutions.

B) Participants

1. Austria (Klemens von Metternich conservatism)

• Austrian diplomat Metternich dominated the Congress, pushing for reactionary policies that upheld monarchies and suppressed nationalism.

2. Britain

• Favored balance of power but sought to expand its naval and colonial dominance.

3. Russia

• Sought to expand its influence into Eastern Europe, especially Poland and the Balkans.

4. Prussia

• Strengthened by gaining lands in western Germany to counterbalance France.

5. France

• Surprisingly not severely punished; Talleyrand managed to retain France’s great power status.

C) Results

1. Balance of Power (1815-1870)

• No single nation dominated Europe for decades, maintaining relative peace.

2. Concert of Europe

• A system where European powers cooperated to maintain stability, intervening in revolutions when necessary.

3. Map of Europe (Poland)

• Poland was divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria, denying Polish nationalists a state.

II. Revolutions (1817-1871)

Despite the Congress’s efforts, liberal and nationalist movements persisted, leading to multiple uprisings.

A) Causes / Liberal Origins

1. Civil Rights – People demanded constitutions, suffrage, and political representation.

2. Ethnic Nationalism – Groups like Greeks, Belgians, and Poles sought independence from empires.

3. Economic Reasons – Industrialization led to worker exploitation and economic instability, sparking revolts.

B) Major Revolutions

1. Greece (1821-1829)

• Fought for independence from the Ottoman Empire.

• Gained international support due to admiration for classical Greece and Christian solidarity.

• Result: Greece became independent in 1829.

2. Belgium (1830-1833)

• Revolted against Dutch rule, citing cultural and religious differences.

• Secured independence, becoming a neutral state.

3. Poland (1830-1831)

• Attempted to overthrow Russian control but was brutally suppressed.

• Led to harsh repression and increased Russian influence.

4. Austria (1848 Revolutions)

• Hungarians, Czechs, and Italians rebelled against Habsburg rule.

• Initially successful, but Austrian and Russian armies crushed the revolts.

C) Effects

1. Ethnic Tensions (Leading to WWI) – Nationalist aspirations continued, especially in Austria-Hungary.

2. Class Tensions – Industrialization led to a growing divide between workers and elites.

3. Emigration – Many revolutionaries and persecuted groups fled to the United States and South America.

III. End of European Balance of Power

The balance of power established in 1815 collapsed by 1871, leading to new rivalries.

A) Crimean War (1853-1856) – End of Concert of Europe

• Russia fought Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire over territorial disputes.

• Weakened Austria, which failed to support either side.

• Russia lost, leading to reforms such as the abolition of serfdom (1861).

B) Unifications

1) Italy (1860-1870)

• Led by Cavour (Piedmont) and Garibaldi.

• Defeated Austria and incorporated Papal States.

• Unified under Victor Emmanuel II in 1870.

2) Germany (Led by Prussia)

a) Prussia and the Junkers – Prussia was militaristic and conservative, with Junker aristocrats controlling power.

b) Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

• Realpolitik – Policies based on pragmatism, not ideology.

• Advocated “Blood & Iron” – war and military force.

c) Northern Unification

• Won Schleswig & Holstein from Denmark (1864).

• Defeated Austria in Austro-Prussian War (1866), excluding Austria from German affairs.

d) Southern Unification

• Catholic southern states initially resisted joining Protestant Prussia.

• Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) unified Germany:

• Bismarck manipulated Napoleon III into war using the Ems Telegram.

• Paris was captured, Napoleon III was deposed, and Germany annexed Alsace-Lorraine.

e) German Reich (1871-1918)

• Wilhelm I was declared Kaiser.

• Ended the Congress of Vienna’s balance of power, making Germany the dominant European state.

Industrial / Economic Revolution (Late 18th Century →)

I. Early Industrialization

A) Preindustrial Societies – Dominated by agriculture and local markets.

B) Why in Britain?

1. Population Growth – More workers and consumers.

2. Natural Resources – Coal and iron.

3. Colonies (Imperialism) – Provided raw materials and markets.

4. Stable Political System – Encouraged investment.

5. Economic Strength – Banking system fueled entrepreneurship.

C) First Industry – Textiles

• Spinning jenny (1764), Water frame (1769), Power loom (1787) revolutionized cloth production.

D) Mass-Produced and Improved Products

1. Iron (for construction and tools).

2. Steel (via the Bessemer Process).

3. Transportation (railroads, steamships).

4. Agriculture (mechanization).

E) Effects of Industrialization

1. Mass Production – Factories replaced handcrafting.

2. Innovation & Applied Science – Telegraph, telephone, steam engines.

3. Urbanization – Cities grew, leading to slums and disease.

4. New Social Classes

• Middle class gained influence.

• Working class suffered from poor conditions.

5. Social Mobility Increased – Education and wealth creation.

II. Responses to Industrialization

A) Economic Thought

1. Adam Smith (1723-1790) & Classical Liberalism

• Advocated laissez-faire capitalism.

• Government’s role: defense, infrastructure, law enforcement.

2. Thomas Malthus & David Ricardo

• Malthus: Population growth would outstrip resources.

• Ricardo: “Iron Law of Wages” predicted perpetual poverty.

3. Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels

• The Communist Manifesto (1848) – Predicted class struggle and revolution.

• Communism vs. Socialism – Complete abolition of private property vs. state-managed economies.

B) Social Darwinism

• Herbert Spencer applied Darwin’s ideas to society, justifying imperialism, racism, and laissez-faire economics.

Conclusion

• 1815-1871 saw revolutions, national unifications, and economic transformation.

• The Industrial Revolution fueled imperialism and global trade.

• Bismarck’s Germany ended the old balance of power, setting the stage for World War I.