Chapter 7: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Consistency

Learning Objectives

• 7.1 Distinguish between attitudes and beliefs: Understand roles of each in psychology.

• 7.2 Characterize the major accounts of attitude formation: Identify how attitudes develop.

• 7.3 Use cognitive dissonance theory: Explain the connection between attitudes and consistency.

• 7.4 Discuss research evidence for and against attitudes predicting behavior: Evaluate studies on this relationship.

• 7.5 Explain beliefs functionalities and phenomena: Explore their purpose in human cognition.

• 7.6 Discuss self-validation theory: Understand implications in practical settings.

Introduction

• Attitudes can be expressed through various means, especially in digital communication.

• Example: Vote Badges in The Orville show public opinions on actions.

• Neurological adjustments occur for negative feedback such as over 10 million downvotes.

What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them?

• Attitudes: Global evaluations toward objects/issues.

• Beliefs: Pieces of information about specific topics.

Dual Attitudes

• Individuals may hold dual attitudes: differing evaluations towards the same object.

  • Explicit Attitudes: Deliberate and reflective, thought-out evaluations.

  • Implicit Attitudes: Automatic, fast, and gut-level responses.

Why People Have Attitudes

• Attitudes categorize experiences into good and bad, aiding in decision-making.

• Facilitates quicker choices and enhances the decision-making process.

How Attitudes Are Formed

Mere Exposure Effect

• Mere Exposure: The tendency to develop a liking for things through repeated exposure, ineffective if initial dislike exists.

Embodied Attitudes and Classical Conditioning

• Embodied Attitudes: Physical movements can influence attitudes.

• Classical Conditioning: Associating a neutral stimulus with a response through repetition.

Operant Conditioning and Social Learning

• Operant Conditioning: Encourages repetition of rewarded behaviors while deterring punished behaviors.

• Social Learning: Imitation of behaviors observed in others based on rewards or punishments.

Polarization of Attitudes

• Attitude Polarization: Attitudes intensify as individuals reflect on their beliefs, potentially biasing evidence evaluation.

Consistency in Attitudes

• Theories highlight the need for consistency in cognitions, with unpleasantness associated with inconsistencies prompting restoration efforts.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Discomfort arises from cognitive inconsistencies leading to rationalization or attitude changes.

Justifying Effort and Choices

• Effort Justification: Individuals internalize that hard work and sacrifice were worthwhile.

• Post-decision Dissonance: Cognitive dissonance occurring post-choice, alleviated by enhancing chosen alternatives and downplaying rejected ones.

Advances in Dissonance Theory

• Dissonance relates to emotional arousal and the expectation of consistency in behavior.

• Influences on self-presentation and media role in reinforcing views are significant.

Is the Drive for Consistency Rooted in Nature or Nurture?

• Involves both automatic detection of inconsistencies and deliberate rationalization or rethinking of those inconsistencies.

Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

• The debate is illustrated by:

  • Gordon Allport: Emphasized the importance of attitudes in psychology.

  • Alan Wicker: Considered attitudes trivial and peripheral.

• A–B Problem: Inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors poses challenges.

Defending Attitudes – Specificity, Aggregation, and Context

• Attitudes are more predictive of specific behaviors when measured precisely.

• Aggregation combines multiple attitudes across varied behaviors to assess broader patterns.

• Context influences how general attitudes impact specific behaviors.

Defending Attitudes – Accessibility and Intentions

• Accessibility: Ease of recalling an attitude influences behavior.

• Behavioral Intentions: Shaped by subjective norms and perceived control beliefs about the behavior's feasibility.

Beliefs and Believing

• Believing: Automatic process while doubting requires conscious engagement.

• Belief Perseverance: Formed beliefs maintain resistance to change despite contrary evidence.

Belief and Coping – Understanding Context

• Beliefs assist in making sense of experiences and in coping with stress and trauma.

• Cognitive Coping: Central roles of beliefs in recovery from adversity with strategies like downward and upward comparison.

Belief and Coping – Assumptive Worlds

• Assumptive Worlds: Human social environments operate on beliefs about the benevolence and fairness of the world, including self-perception.

Religious Belief

• Religious frameworks can aid in stress management, providing a basis for effective coping strategies.

Irrational Belief

• Individuals may hold irrational beliefs lacking logical foundations, leading to increased anxiety and lower self-esteem.

Self-Validation Theory

• Self-Validation Theory: Emphasizes the significance of perceived validity in creating impactful beliefs and attitudes.

Summary

• Beliefs: Information viewed as true; Attitudes: Broad evaluations towards objects.

• Various methods exist to resolve cognitive inconsistencies.