Chapter 10 (1)

Chapter 10: Learning Psychology 102

1. Basic Learning Concepts

• Learning: Acquisition of new, relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience.

• Associative Learning: Learning that certain events occur together, which can involve two stimuli (Classical Conditioning) or a response and its consequences (Operant Conditioning).

2. Fundamental Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Stimulus: Event or situation that evokes a response.

• Conditioning: Process of connecting stimuli with behaviors.

  • Two main forms:

    • Classical Conditioning

    • Operant Conditioning

    • Observational Learning: Acquisition through observation and language.

3. Classical Conditioning: Key Components

• Examples of Classical Conditioning:

  • Stimulus 1: Thunder

  • Stimulus 2: Lightning

  • Response: Startled reaction (wincing)

• Process Overview:

  • Startled by thunder, anticipate it due to previous lightning experience leading to conditioned responses.

4. Ivan Pavlov's Contributions

• Pavlov's experiments demonstrated classical conditioning:

  • Example: Food (Unconditioned Stimulus) causing salivation (Unconditioned Response).

  • A bell (Neutral Stimulus) is linked with food, eventually causing salivation alone (Conditioned Response).

5. Classical Conditioning Stages

Before Conditioning:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Food

• Unconditioned Response (UR): Salivation

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Whistle (no salivation)

During Conditioning:

• Associating: Whistle + Food

After Conditioning:

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Whistle

• Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation

6. Definitions of Terms

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Elicits no response before conditioning.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): Unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus (like salivation).

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Triggers unconditioned response naturally (such as food).

• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially irrelevant stimulus that, after association with unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

7. Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition: Initial learning stage linking NS and US.

• Extinction: Diminishing of CR when US does not follow CS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of extinguished CR after a pause.

• Generalization: Stimuli similar to CS elicit similar responses.

• Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between CS and similar stimuli not signaling US.

8. Higher-Order Conditioning

• A strong CS paired with a neutral (now NS) could form a new CS (e.g., advertisement techniques).

• Preparedness: Organisms are evolutionarily prepared to learn certain associations more easily.

9. Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Influences on human health: drug cravings, emotional behaviors, therapy applications.

10. Operant Conditioning

• B. F. Skinner: Influential figure in behaviorism; expanded on Thorndike’s law of effect.

• Operant Conditioning: Strengthening behavior followed by reinforcer, diminishing when followed by punisher.

11. Reinforcements

Positive Reinforcement:

• Strengthens response by presenting pleasant stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement:

• Strengthens response by removing unpleasant stimulus.

12. Types of Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcer: Innately satisfies biological needs.

• Conditioned Reinforcer: Gains power through association with primary reinforcer.

13. Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement every time behavior occurs.

• Partial Reinforcement: Only some behaviors are reinforced.

  • Types:

    • Fixed-ratio: After a fixed number of responses.

    • Variable-ratio: After an unpredictable number of responses.

    • Fixed-interval: After a fixed amount of time.

    • Variable-interval: After an average amount of time.

14. Punishment

• Positive Punishment: Presenting a negative consequence after undesired behavior.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a desired stimulus after an undesired behavior.

• Major drawbacks include teaching fear and not replacing unwanted behavior.

15. Shaping Behavior

• Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior towards desired target through reinforcement.

• Successive Approximations: Rewarding behaviors closer to the desired one.

16. Learning and Cognition

• Cognitive Influences: Expectation of a CS signaling US develops.

• Learning occurs through predictions and expectations.

17. Observational Learning

• Learning by observing and imitating others' behaviors.

• Modeling: Imitating specific behaviors.

• Social impacts: prosocial vs antisocial behaviors seen in children.

  • Example: Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment showcasing aggression and learning.

18. Implications of Observational Learning

• Promoting helpful behaviors and communications in learning environments.

• Antisocial effects of observing negative behaviors such as aggression and deceit.