Psychology 201- Exam 3

Definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS (e.g., salivation when food is presented).
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially produces no specific response (e.g., a bell before conditioning).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Acquisition: The initial stage of learning when a response is established (e.g., the dog learns to associate the bell with food).
Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is presented without the UCS (e.g., the bell rings but no food is presented).
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause (e.g., after some time, the dog salivates again at the bell).
Generalization: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS (e.g., the dog salivates to a different bell sound).
Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli (e.g., the dog salivates only to the specific bell used during training).

Involves using a conditioned stimulus to condition a new stimulus (e.g., a light is paired with the bell, and the dog starts salivating to the light as well).

Watson conducted an experiment on "Little Albert," where he conditioned a child to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise (UCS). This led to a conditioned emotional response (fear) to the rat (CS) and other similar objects.

A learned aversion to a particular taste associated with illness (e.g., becoming nauseated after eating a specific food and subsequently avoiding it).

Law of Effect: Proposed by Thorndike, it states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur again.
Cat Puzzle Boxes: Thorndike placed cats in puzzle boxes and observed how they learned to escape for a reward (food).

Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., giving a child a cookie for good behavior).
- Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., turning off a loud alarm when a task is completed).
Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., scolding a child for misbehavior).
- Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy for not sharing).

Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., getting paid for every 10 products made).
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling).
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period (e.g., weekly paychecks).
Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time periods (e.g., checking for emails).
Effectiveness: Variable schedules tend to produce more consistent behavior because they create uncertainty about when reinforcement will occur.

Can lead to fear, anxiety, and aggression; may not teach desired behaviors; can damage the parent-child relationship.

Gradually training a behavior by reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behavior (e.g., teaching a dog to roll over by rewarding it for lying down first).

Learning by observing others. Bandura’s experiments with Bobo dolls showed that children imitate aggressive behavior seen in adults, emphasizing the role of social learning.

Developmental Psychology: The study of how people grow and change from infancy through old age.
Zygotes, Embryos, Fetuses:
- Zygote: The fertilized egg.
- Embryo: The developing organism from about 2 weeks to 8 weeks.
- Fetus: The developing organism from 9 weeks until birth.
Types of Twins: Identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic).
Teratogens: Substances that can cause developmental abnormalities (e.g., alcohol, drugs, certain infections).

Infants can be studied using techniques like habituation (measuring the time spent looking at stimuli) to determine preferences.

Sensorimotor: (0-2 years) Learning through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. Key concepts: object permanence.
Preoperational: (2-7 years) Developing language and imagination but lacking logical reasoning. Key concepts: egocentrism, conservation.
Concrete Operational: (7-11 years) Developing logical thought about concrete objects. Key concepts: conservation, reversibility.
Formal Operational: (12+ years) Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

Emphasized social interactions and cultural influences on development. Private Speech: Children’s self-talk that helps them think and solve problems.

Refers to a child's inherent personality traits. Types:
- Easy: Adaptable, cheerful.
- Difficult: Irregular, intense reactions.
- Slow to Warm Up: Cautious, requires time to adjust.

Emotional bond between caregiver and child. Types:
- Secure: Comfortable with intimacy and autonomy.
- Anxious/Ambivalent: Clingy, nervous about exploration.
- Avoidant: Indifferent to caregiver's presence.

Authoritative: High warmth and high demand; leads to well-adjusted children.
Authoritarian: Low warmth and high demand; can result in anxious children.
Permissive: High warmth and low demand; may lead to impulsive children.

Trust vs. Mistrust: (Infancy) Developing trust when caregivers provide reliability.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: (Early Childhood) Learning independence.
Initiative vs. Guilt: (Preschool Age) Asserting control through play and social interactions.
Industry vs. Inferiority: (School Age) Developing a sense of competence.
Identity vs. Role Confusion: (Adolescence) Exploring personal identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation: (Young Adulthood) Forming intimate relationships.
Generativity vs. Stagnation: (Middle Adulthood) Contributing to society and helping the next generation.
Integrity vs. Despair: (Late Adulthood) Reflecting on life and feeling a sense of fulfillment.