Learning

Definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS (e.g., salivation when food is presented).

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially produces no specific response (e.g., a bell before conditioning).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Key Processes in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: The initial stage of learning when a response is established (e.g., the dog learns to associate the bell with food).

• Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is presented without the UCS (e.g., the bell rings but no food is presented).

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause (e.g., after some time, the dog salivates again at the bell).

• Generalization: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS (e.g., the dog salivates to a different bell sound).

• Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli (e.g., the dog salivates only to the specific bell used during training).

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Involves using a conditioned stimulus to condition a new stimulus (e.g., a light is paired with the bell, and the dog starts salivating to the light as well).

John B. Watson and Baby Albert

• Watson conducted an experiment on "Little Albert," where he conditioned a child to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise (UCS). This led to a conditioned emotional response (fear) to the rat (CS) and other similar objects.

Conditioned Taste Aversion

• A learned aversion to a particular taste associated with illness (e.g., becoming nauseated after eating a specific food and subsequently avoiding it).

Operant Conditioning

• Law of Effect: Proposed by Thorndike, it states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur again.

• Cat Puzzle Boxes: Thorndike placed cats in puzzle boxes and observed how they learned to escape for a reward (food).

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., giving a child a cookie for good behavior).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., turning off a loud alarm when a task is completed).

• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., scolding a child for misbehavior).

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy for not sharing).

Primary Reinforcer

• A stimulus that is naturally rewarding (e.g., food, water).

Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., getting paid for every 10 products made).

• Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling).

• Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period (e.g., weekly paychecks).

• Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time periods (e.g., checking for emails).

• Effectiveness: Variable schedules tend to produce more consistent behavior because they create uncertainty about when reinforcement will occur.

Drawbacks of Punishment

• Can lead to fear, anxiety, and aggression; may not teach desired behaviors; can damage the parent-child relationship.

Shaping

• Gradually training a behavior by reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behavior (e.g., teaching a dog to roll over by rewarding it for lying down first).

Observational Learning / Modeling

• Learning by observing others. Bandura’s experiments with Bobo dolls showed that children imitate aggressive behavior seen in adults, emphasizing the role of social learning.

Chapter 10 – Human Development

• Developmental Psychology: The study of how people grow and change from infancy through old age.

• Zygotes, Embryos, Fetuses:

  • Zygote: The fertilized egg.

  • Embryo: The developing organism from about 2 weeks to 8 weeks.

  • Fetus: The developing organism from 9 weeks until birth.

• Types of Twins: Identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic).

• Teratogens: Substances that can cause developmental abnormalities (e.g., alcohol, drugs, certain infections).

Infant Preferences

• Infants can be studied using techniques like habituation (measuring the time spent looking at stimuli) to determine preferences.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor: (0-2 years) Learning through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. Key concepts: object permanence.

2. Preoperational: (2-7 years) Developing language and imagination but lacking logical reasoning. Key concepts: egocentrism, conservation.

3. Concrete Operational: (7-11 years) Developing logical thought about concrete objects. Key concepts: conservation, reversibility.

4. Formal Operational: (12+ years) Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

Vygotsky’s Theory

• Emphasized social interactions and cultural influences on development. Private Speech: Children’s self-talk that helps them think and solve problems.

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development

1. Pre-conventional: Focus on self-interest and avoiding punishment.

2. Conventional: Upholding social rules and laws.

3. Post-conventional: Recognizing universal ethical principles.

Temperament

• Refers to a child's inherent personality traits. Types:

  • Easy: Adaptable, cheerful.

  • Difficult: Irregular, intense reactions.

  • Slow to Warm Up: Cautious, requires time to adjust.

Attachment

• Emotional bond between caregiver and child. Types:

  • Secure: Comfortable with intimacy and autonomy.

  • Anxious/Ambivalent: Clingy, nervous about exploration.

  • Avoidant: Indifferent to caregiver's presence.

Parenting Styles

1. Authoritative: High warmth and high demand; leads to well-adjusted children.

2. Authoritarian: Low warmth and high demand; can result in anxious children.

3. Permissive: High warmth and low demand; may lead to impulsive children.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust: (Infancy) Developing trust when caregivers provide reliability.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: (Early Childhood) Learning independence.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt: (Preschool Age) Asserting control through play and social interactions.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority: (School Age) Developing a sense of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion: (Adolescence) Exploring personal identity.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation: (Young Adulthood) Forming intimate relationships.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation: (Middle Adulthood) Contributing to society and helping the next generation.

8. Integrity vs. Despair: (Late Adulthood) Reflecting on life and feeling a sense of fulfillment.