Indian Country

Summary of the Text

The text explores the concept and evolution of "Indian Country" in the United States, starting with the pre-removal era where tribes like the Cherokee were adopting aspects of European-American culture, like a written language, a constitution, and Christianity, to secure their lands. Despite these efforts and their initial strength, a massive depopulation of Native Americans occurred due to disease and conflict following European contact.

The narrative focuses heavily on the forced removal policy under President Andrew Jackson, which culminated in the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This act disregarded existing treaties and the Supreme Court's ruling that the Cherokee Nation was a sovereign entity. The Jackson administration used a treaty with a non-representative faction of the Cherokee (Treaty of New Echota) to justify the removal.

The tragic forced relocation of the Cherokee and other tribes (collectively known as the Five Civilized Tribes) from their ancestral homes in the Southeast to a newly designated "Indian Territory" (present-day Oklahoma) is known as the Trail of Tears. This march resulted in the deaths of thousands due to starvation, disease, and exposure.

Initially established as a permanent Native American homeland, Indian Territory was soon encroached upon by settlers. Treaties were renegotiated, and parts of the territory were opened to white settlement, notably through the land run of 1889. Legislation like the Dawes Act further eroded tribal land holdings. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the remaining Indian Territory was reduced, leading to the creation of the state of Oklahoma and the dissolution of the "permanent" Indian Country concept.

The text also touches on the lingering cultural impact and popular memory of this history, referencing the contrasting portrayals of Indian Country in works like Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie and the musical Oklahoma!

Study Notes

1. Historical Context and Initial Status of Tribes

• Pre-Removal Cherokee: Adopted many European-American customs:

• Developed a written language (Sequoyah's syllabary).

• Wrote a constitution.

• Owned plantations and slaves.

• Were deemed "civilized" but still faced prejudice.

• Depopulation: Massive demographic catastrophe for Native Americans; by 1900, the population was less than half a million, a 90% decline from pre-contact estimates.

2. The Drive for Removal

• Motivations for Removal: Desire for Native American land in the Southeast for white settlement and cotton agriculture.

• Key Figure: President Andrew Jackson. He considered the idea of a permanent Indian Territory to be "preposterous" and refused to enforce the Supreme Court's ruling protecting Cherokee sovereignty.

• Indian Removal Act (1830): Passed by Congress; authorized the forced negotiation of treaties to move eastern tribes west of the Mississippi River.

3. The Cherokee Case and the Trail of Tears

• Supreme Court Ruling: The Court found in favor of the Cherokee Nation, asserting it was a sovereign political entity with rights to its land. Jackson defied the ruling.

• Treaty of New Echota (1835): The official instrument for removal. It was signed by a minority faction of the Cherokee (the "treaty party") who did not represent the majority of the Nation.

• The Trail of Tears: The forced march of approximately 16,000 Cherokee from their homes to Indian Territory.

• Timeline: Began in 1838.

• Casualties: Thousands died (estimates often cite around 4,000) from exposure, disease, and starvation.

• Other Removed Tribes: The Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole were collectively known as the Five Civilized Tribes.

4. Indian Territory and Its Dissolution

• Indian Territory: A large area west of the Mississippi, originally promised as a permanent, self-governed homeland. It was located mostly in what is now Oklahoma.

• Encroachment: White settlers continuously pressured the government to open the territory.

• The Land Run (1889): The most dramatic event in which a large portion of Indian Territory was opened to white settlement.

• Dissolution: Congress created Oklahoma Territory from the western half of Indian Territory. The remaining eastern part (the former Cherokee, Creek, etc., lands) was intended to become the all-Indian state of Sequoyah, but this was rejected.

• Statehood: Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory were combined to create the state of Oklahoma in 1907, essentially dissolving the separate Native American political entities and territory.

5. Cultural Impact and Legacy

• Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie: Portrays the land as a pristine, unsettled wilderness that the Ingalls family moves into, framing the Native Americans as "savages" who must leave, reflecting the white settler's perspective of the time.

• Oklahoma! (Musical): Features a jubilant song about the new state that originally had lines referencing the clash between white settlers and the "redskin" that were ultimately removed for being too offensive, though the overall cheerful tone tends to obscure the history of removal and conflict.