Theories of development

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Erikson proposed eight psychosocial stages spanning the entire lifespan. Each stage presents a unique crisis or challenge, and its resolution leads to the development of a specific virtue. Failure to resolve a crisis can lead to psychological difficulties.

• Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year): Infants learn to trust or mistrust their caregivers based on the consistency of their care. Successful resolution fosters hope.

• Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3 years): Toddlers strive for independence and control. Supportive environments cultivate a sense of will.

• Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years): Preschoolers initiate activities and develop a sense of purpose. Excessive criticism can lead to feelings of guilt.

• Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years): School-aged children focus on learning and mastering skills. Success promotes competence while struggles can lead to inferiority.

• Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-21 years): Adolescents search for their identity and place in society. This process leads to the development of fidelity to one's values and beliefs.

• Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (21-40 years): Young adults seek meaningful relationships and intimacy. Failure to achieve this can lead to feelings of isolation.

• Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years): Middle-aged individuals focus on contributing to society and leaving a legacy, fostering a sense of care.

• Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Older adults reflect on their life, leading to either a sense of satisfaction (integrity) or regret (despair).

Key takeaway: Erikson emphasized the social and cultural influences on development throughout life, highlighting the importance of relationships and meaningful contributions.

II. Sigmund Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Freud's theory posits that personality development is driven by instinctual sexual drives and the resolution of unconscious conflicts. He outlined five psychosexual stages:

• Stage 1: Oral Stage (0-1.5 years): Pleasure is centered around the mouth. Fixation at this stage may manifest as oral behaviors like smoking or overeating in adulthood.

• Stage 2: Anal Stage (1.5-4 years): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control. Toilet training experiences can impact personality, with potential for anal-retentive or anal-expulsive traits.

• Stage 3: Phallic Stage (4-6 years): Children develop an unconscious attraction to the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus complex in boys, Electra complex in girls). Resolution involves identifying with the same-sex parent.

• Stage 4: Latency Stage (6-11 years): Sexual urges are repressed, and focus shifts to social and intellectual development.

• Stage 5: Genital Stage (12- adulthood): Puberty reawakens sexual desires. Healthy development leads to mature sexual relationships and intimacy.

Key takeaway: Freud emphasized the influence of early childhood experiences on personality and unconscious conflicts on behavior. His theories are highly debated and controversial.

III. Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory

Piaget focused on how children construct their understanding of the world through interactions with their environment. He proposed four stages of cognitive development:

• Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Infants learn through senses and motor actions, developing object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight).

• Stage 2: Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children use symbols and language but are egocentric, struggling to see things from others' perspectives. Animistic thinking (attributing human qualities to inanimate objects) is also common.

• Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Children develop logical thinking and can understand conservation (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance). They also develop the ability to see things from others' perspectives.

• Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (11+ years): Adolescents develop abstract and hypothetical reasoning. They can engage in systematic problem-solving and consider multiple perspectives.

Key takeaway: Piaget emphasized the active role children play in constructing their knowledge. His theory highlights the importance of providing age-appropriate learning experiences.

IV. Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory

Kohlberg expanded on Piaget's work, focusing on the development of moral reasoning. He proposed three levels of moral development, each with two stages:

Level 1: Preconventional Morality (ages 3-10)

• Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Focus on avoiding punishment and obeying authority figures.

• Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: Right and wrong are determined by personal needs and desires. "What's in it for me?" thinking.

Level 2: Conventional Morality (ages 10-13)

• Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: Seeking approval and maintaining good relationships with others.

• Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: Following rules and laws to uphold societal order.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality (ages 13+)

• Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: Understanding that laws are agreements and may need to be changed to benefit the majority.

• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: Following one's conscience and upholding universal ethical principles like justice and equality, even if they conflict with laws.

Key takeaway: Kohlberg's theory emphasizes the progression from self-centered moral reasoning to more principled and abstract moral judgmen