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3 basic functions 1. receive sensory input from the world through vision, hearing, taste, touch and smell 2. process the info in the brain by paying attention to it, perceiving it and remebering it 3. repsond to the info by acting on it - Central nervous system: part of the nervous system that consist of the brain and spinal cord - Peripheral nervous system: enables nerves to connect the central nervous system to the skin,musckes,organs and glands For example: you bite into an ice cream sandwich, the PNS registers those sensory signals and transmits the information to the CNS. The CNS organizes and evaluates that information, then directs the PNS to perform specific behaviors, such as taking another bite of the sandwich. To understand the 3 functions 1. what sensory input are you currently receiving? 2. how are you proccessing that information? 3. in what ways are you responding to the input? - neurons are the basic units of nervous system they are cells that receive, integrate and transmit info in the nervous system the operate through eletrical impulsies and connect with other neurons through chemical signals 1. Dendrites: Branchlike extensions of the neuron with receptors that detecr info from other neurons 2. Cell body: part of the neuron where info from thousands of others is collected and intergrated 3. Axon: The long narrow outgrowth of the neuron that enables it to transmit info to other neurons 4. Myelin Sheath: Fatty insulation on axon that helps actions move down faster down the Axon 5. Terminal buttons: at the end of Axon(s) that release chemical signals from neuron into the synapse 6. Synapse: site of communication between neurons through neurontransmitters 7. Neurontransmitters: chemical substances that carry signals from one neuron to another How Neurons Communicate Within the neuron: Electrical messages called action potentials(the neural impulse that travels along the axon and then causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.) Between the neurons: chemical messages called neurotransmitters The neuron begins in a resting state when the eletrical charge inside the neuron is slightly more negative than the electrical charge outside. A neuron cannot fire just a little bit. It either fires or it does not. Analogy to describe potential process for a neuron…Water Gun Resting state: The water gun is empty and at rest waiting for it to be filled up with water. Stimulus: someone putting water inside the water gun to prepare it to be used. Threshold: Holding/ pressing on the trigger of the water gun. Action Potential: the stored water is being shoot out of the water gun; water is shooting out rapidly Resting and Resetting: after the use of the water gun it is empty and is ready to put water in it again. Its now in its resting stage. Neurotransmitters in the synapse - neurons do not touch one another; they communicate chemically through neurtransmitters - receptors are specialized sites that specifically respond to certain types of neurotransmitters 3 phases of neural communication: this is to understand how neurons typically communicate… 1. Transmission phase: Neurons pass signals to reiving neurons; electrical signal created in the cell body and travel along the axon 2. Reception phase: Neurons recieve signals from neigbhboring neurons 3. Intergration phase: Neuron assess the incoming signals (similar to tweeting and retweeting on Twitter) there are 2 major ways in which neurontransmitters are removed from the synapse 1. Reuptake invovles reabsorbing neurtansmitters into the presynaptic neuron 2. Enzymes degradation involves the breaking down of neutransmitters SSRI’s block the reuptake of serotonin which increases the amount present in the synapse and magnigies its effect. Postynaptic neurons cann produce signals of two types: 1. Excitatory signals increase the likehood that the neuron will fire an action potential (Glutamate) 2. Inhibitory signals inhibit the neuron. They decease the likehood that the neuron will fire an action potential. (GABA)- Agonist= drugs that enhance the action of neurotransmitters (EX: nicotine a drug found in tobacco. it acts as an agonist to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine b/c it it chemically similary and so acetylcholine receptors cannot tell the difference) - Antagonist= drugs that inhabit the actions of neurotransmitters. Acetylcholine - Botox treatments depend on the action of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitters responsible for motor control over muscles. After moving across the synapses, the acetylcholine binds with receotors on muscle cells. Norepinephrine - important for noticing what is going on in your body. In our body the same chemical is called epinphrine(originally called adrenaline which can produce an adrenaline rush that sudeen burst of energy that seems to take over your whole body. The increase heart rate and perspiration is called the fight or flight response. Serotonin - important for emotional state, impulse control and dreaming. Is related to sad and anxious moods, food cravings and aggressive behavior. Dopamine - most important function are motivation and reward. A lack of it may also be associated with specific problems or illnesses. GABA and Glutamate - widely distributed throughout the brain than most neurotransmitters. Without the inhibitory effect of GABA the excitation of neurons might get out of control and spread through the brain chaotically Edorphins - If you are injured you will be grateful for this and helps reduce pain. Also helps with pleasure you eperiance when you do something rewarding There are 3 main brain divisions - Hindbrain - Forebrain Hindbrain= at base of the skull, the spinal cord thickens and becomes more complex. spinal cord becomes hindbrain. Which contains structures that control body functions that are essential for survuval. has three structres 1. medulla= controls basic functions of survival, heart rate, breating, swallowing, vomiting and urination. 2. pons= important role for sleep and arousal and in coordinating movements between the left and right side of the body 3. cerebellum= around the medulla and pons. is essential for proper motor functions like movement and balance. Midbrain= located above pons. consist of several structures that are involve in the rflexive movement of the eyes and body. - substantia nigra= initiation of voluntary motor activity this region is critital for the production of dopamine Parkinsons disease is caused by the death of substantia nigra cells and the resulting loss of dopamine produced by those cells The Forebrain Thalamus= is the sensory gateway to the cortext. sight, sound, touch and taste. all incoming sensory info before that info reaches the cortext. - sensory relay station Hypothalamus= brains master regulating bodily functions. keeps the body in balance (not too cold or hot; hungry or full; sleepy or awake. Influence basic motive behaviors - Responsible for the four 4s (fighting, flight, feeding, fornicating) Hippocampus= formation of new memroies. also helps navigate in enviroments. Amygdala= located in front of the hippocampus. vital for processing the emotional significance of stimuli, especually fear. Also involved in memory processing during times of emotional arousal - excitement, fear, arousal, agression What makes us HUMAN? Cerebral Cortext= The outer layer of the forebrain Lobes of the Cerebral Cortext occipital lobes= located in back of portion of the head. devoted exclusively to vision and they include many distinct visual areas. Parietal lobes= regions of the cerebral cortext in front of the occipital lobes and behind frontal lobes for the sense of touch and pincturing the layout of spaces in an enviroment. - Homunculus (Primary Motor Cortex & Primary Somatosensory Cortext) Temporal Lobes= Regions of the cerebral cortext below the parietal lobes and in front of the occupital lobes important for hearing and for recognizing objects such as faces. processing auditory info Frontal Lobe= region of the cerebral cortext at the front brain; important for movement,planning,and complex processes. (rational thought, attention and social process) - Prefrontal cortext: THE BRAIN HEMISPHERES Split brain: condition in which the corpus callosum is surgically servere and the 2 hemispheres of the brain dont receive info directly from each other. - right hemisphere: better with spatial relationships and controls left side body movements; Occipital lobe= proccess left visual field info - Left Hemisphere: better with language and controls right side body movements; occipital lobe= processes right visual field info People tend to be either left-brain or right-brain dominant, with left-brain thinkers being more analytical, rational, and objective, and right-brain thinkers being more creative. (which is not true about the relationship between the left and right hemispheres of the brain) MYTH: the left brian thinkers are more rational and analytical and objective. Right brian thinkers are more creative, holistic and subjective SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE: - the hemisphere How does experience impact our brain plasticity=a property of the brain that causes it to change as a result of experience or injury - reflects the intereactive nature pf biological and environmental influences growing new neurons Neurongenesis: the production of new neurons - New Neurons can be produced in some areas of the brain Changing existing neuroal connections - neurons that fire together, wire together - Neural pruning: connections that are not strong and not needed are “pruned” so that other connections can be strengthened Brain reorganization - sometimes entirely new connections develop between neurons. this new growth is a major factor in recovery from brain injury. brain reorganization is much more common in children than adults Definitions: prhenology= the attempt to assess personality traits and mental abilities by measuring bumps on the human skulls. fMRI(functional magentic resonance imaging)= measures changes in the bloods oxygen level. TMS(transcranial magnetic stimulation)= uses a very fast and powerful magnetic field to momentarily disrupt activity in a specific brain region. EEG(electroencephalograph)= measurement of different behavioral states produce different and predictable EEG patterns. Spinal Cord= gateway for info traveling between the brain and the body. Carries sensory info up to the brain and carries motor signals from the brain to the body parts to initiate action. Dyslexia= related to problems with processing symbols and sounds in the brain. Peripheral Nervoys System - Somatic nervous system= a subdivision of the PNS; transmits sensory signals and motor signals back and forth between the CNS and the skin, muscles, and joints - Autonomic nervous system= a subdivision of the PNS; transmits sensory signals and motor signals back and forth between the CNS and the bodys glands and internal organs endocrine system= a bodily communication system that uses hormones to influence many aspects of the body, mental activity and behavior. - Hormones= chemical released from the endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues which later influenced by the hormones Gonads, the sex glands used for reproduction, produce both androgens and estrogens in people regardless of sex. ( hormones that cause people to develop secondary sex characteristics) natural selection= basis of evolution; the idea that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular enviroment have an advantage over those who do not. - genes= units of heredity that helps determine a offsprings characteristics Behavioral Genetics - Monozygotic twins=identical twins; siblings result from one zygote splitting in two so they share the same gene - dizygotic twins= fraternal twins; result from two seperately fertilized eggs, so they are no more similar genetically than nontwin siblings are Chapter 4 Human Development developmental psychology= the scientific study of how humans change over the life span from conception until death - physical = involves shifts in hormone levels, growth of the body and changes in the brain - socio-emotional - Cognitive = how we think, reason, and communicate considerations in developmental psychology - enviroment (pysical, cultural, social) - behavior - genetic activty why do we care about development research? What can it tell us? - I would personally say to help how a person is developing in transition through their age. Whether like learning disabilites or physical disabilities or maybe even some mental issues. - the differences between nature and nuture (for example twins that have the same DNA and such but have a distinct personality). - a lot of how parenting our children and the outcomes **Development in the womb** Germinal period: 0-2 weeks - when sperm and egg meets which creates the zygote - zygote-blastocyst - the cells begin to divide rapidly=mitosis - stage ends when implantation begins in the wall of the uterus and the placenta begins to form in order to nourish the developing human. Embryonic period: 2-8 weeks - blastocyst- develops into embryo - placenta grows - neural tube forms (folic acid facilitates= nutrients for mother to baby)(basis of the nervous system) if there is not given then its spinal cord and brain may not develope properly - organs begin to develop (spinal cord, liver, brain, kidneys, sex organs) anecephaly(not formed at top) and spina bifida e(does not form at the bottom) fetal period: 9 weeks-birth - sex organs begin to differentiate - hearing begins around 6 months - muller ducts and wolff ducts external risks to prenatal development Teratogens - enviromental substances that can harm prenatal development Critical thinking…remember to verify sources - daily news vs CDS other teratogens - cocaine - tobacco - mercury - thalidomide Birth full term=40 weeks - 37 weeks= birth without considering premature point of viability - around 24-26 weeks physical development in infancy newborn reflexes - babies comes into the world hardwired with basic motor reflexes that aid survival rooting reflex= to feel sucking reflex= help when newborn has nipple in mouth grasping reflex= clinging to mother maturation: pyhsical development of the brain and body that prepares an infant for voluntary movement such as rolling over, sitting, and walking. The brain changes in 2 critcal ways 1. Myelinated axons= forms synapses with other neurons 2. Over time and with experience synaptic connections change Motor Skils: babies come into the world hardwired with basic motor reflexes that aid survuval. what are some major motor milestones in the first year following birth? - crawling - eye cordination - rolling over - sitting up - walking attachment develops in infancy all infants have a fundamental need to form strong connections with caretakers - early belief that attachment was based priarily on getting food from mother which is more complex its more of the social bond for attachment Early attachment: Infants even those with brain damage and disabilities have a fundamental need to bond emotionally with those who care for them. 4 different attachment styles secure attachment = confidence to play in an unfamiliar enviroment as long as the caregiver is present and readily coforted by the caregiver during times of distress avoidant attachment= somewhat willing to explore an unfamiliar enviroment but little interest in the caregiver they may not look at the caregiver when the caregiver leaves or returns. ambivalent attachment= unwilling to explore an unfamiliar enviroment, seem to have mixed feeling about the carregiver- they may cry when the caregiver leaves the room but they cannot be consoled by the caregiver upon his or her return. fearful attachment= child is cautious while playing, child is scared when parent leaves and parent act strangely on return screams, hits self or caregiver and throw things. How do infants and children develop? parenting styles: as adolescents develop their own identities, they come into more conflict with their parents 4 types of parenting styles differing along two dimensions - level of demand - level of responsiveness/warmth | | Low Demand | High Demand | | --- | --- | --- | | Low Responsive | Neglectful inattentive and uninvovled without clear rules and limits Indifferent to childs need | Authoritarian Strong expectations for children to obey strict rules with limited emotional or psychological support Punishment for not following | | High Responsive | Permissive Very involved but do not set clear rules and limits Little use of punishment Indulgment of childs desires | Authoritative Clear expectations for children to follow rules with emotional and psychological support *Child understands the need for rules | How do infants and children develop? Piagets theory We change how we think as we form new schemas, or ways of thinking about how the world works - Assiminlation: incorporate new information into existing frameworks for knowledge ex: child knows that dogs have four legs, fur, ears, and a tail. Child sees a dog because of her “dog” schema - Accommodation: create new framework for knowledge ex: child learns that the animal is a cat. She now has to create a new schema for “cat” or drastically alter existing ones to incorprate new information that otherwise would not fit in Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years - infants aquire information about the world through their senses and motor skills Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years - children think symbolically about objects but they reason based on intuition and superficial appearances rather than logic (Centration= lack of conversation / Egocentrism) Concrete operational stage: 7-12 years - children begin to think about and understand logical operation and they are no longer fooled by appearances. (Law of conservation) Formal operational stage: 12- adulthood - people can think abstractly and they can formulate and test hypotheses through logical other ways of thinking about cognitive development -We now know that Piaget underestimated the ages at which certain skills develop. Psychologist now think of cognitive development in terms of trends rather than strict stages.