EHAP Unit 8

Wilhelm II

• Definition: Emperor of Germany from 1888 to 1918, Wilhelm II was the last German emperor and king of Prussia. He was known for his aggressive foreign policy and role in the buildup to World War I.

• Significance: Wilhelm’s policies, including the "New Course" of avoiding diplomacy in favor of militarism, directly contributed to tensions in Europe, especially with Britain and France. His abdication in 1918 marked the end of the German monarchy and the establishment of the Weimar Republic.

Triple Alliance

• Definition: A military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, formed in 1882.

• Significance: The Triple Alliance was a key factor in the complex web of alliances that contributed to the outbreak of World War I. It was a counterbalance to the Triple Entente and formed the core of the Central Powers during the war.

Triple Entente

• Definition: An alliance between France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, formed in response to the Triple Alliance.

• Significance: The Triple Entente formed the basis of the Allied Powers in World War I, opposing the Central Powers and playing a crucial role in the eventual defeat of Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Second Moroccan Crisis

• Definition: A diplomatic crisis in 1911 when Germany sent the gunboat Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir, challenging French influence there.

• Significance: It increased tensions between Germany and the Triple Entente, particularly with France and the UK, pushing Europe closer to World War I.

Naval Buildup

• Definition: The competitive expansion of naval forces, particularly between Germany and Britain, in the early 20th century.

• Significance: The naval arms race exacerbated tensions between European powers, especially Germany and Britain, and contributed to the eventual outbreak of World War I.

Gavrilo Princip

• Definition: A Bosnian Serb member of the Black Hand who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914.

• Significance: Princip’s assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was the immediate trigger for World War I.

Black Hand

• Definition: A secret Serbian nationalist organization that sought to create Greater Serbia, often through violence.

• Significance: The Black Hand’s involvement in the assassination of Franz Ferdinand helped spark World War I, highlighting nationalist tensions in Europe.

First & Second Balkan Wars

• Definition: Two conflicts (1912–1913) in the Balkans. The First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria) and the Ottoman Empire. The Second Balkan War saw Bulgaria fighting against its former allies over territorial disputes.

• Significance: These wars destabilized the region, exacerbated tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, and contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

July Crisis

• Definition: The series of events following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914, leading to the outbreak of World War I.

• Significance: The July Crisis was the culmination of years of diplomatic tensions, alliance systems, and military mobilization, marking the immediate cause of World War I.

“Blank Check”

• Definition: A promise from Germany to Austria-Hungary in July 1914 that they would support Austria-Hungary in whatever action they took against Serbia.

• Significance: This unconditional support encouraged Austria-Hungary to take aggressive actions toward Serbia, triggering the escalation of the conflict into World War I.

Battle of Marne

• Definition: A key battle in 1914 where French and British forces halted the German advance into France, preventing a quick German victory.

• Significance: The Battle of the Marne ended German hopes of a rapid victory and led to the stalemate of trench warfare, which defined much of World War I.

Central Powers

• Definition: The alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria during World War I.

• Significance: The Central Powers fought against the Allied Powers in World War I but were ultimately defeated in 1918.

Battle of the Somme

• Definition: A major battle in 1916 between the Allies and Germany, one of the largest of World War I, marked by heavy casualties on both sides.

• Significance: The Battle of the Somme symbolized the horrors of trench warfare and had limited military success, leading to massive loss of life.

Armenian Genocide

• Definition: The systematic mass murder of Armenians by the Ottoman Empire during World War I, from 1915 to 1923.

• Significance: The genocide is considered one of the first modern genocides, with millions of Armenians killed or displaced, and it remains a significant historical and diplomatic issue.

War in the Ottoman Empire & East Asia

• Definition: The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers, while Japan joined the Allies and fought in East Asia.

• Significance: The war in these regions helped shape the post-war global order and contributed to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, leading to its eventual dissolution.

Easter Rising

• Definition: A 1916 rebellion in Ireland against British rule, led by Irish nationalists.

• Significance: Although unsuccessful in the short term, the Easter Rising was a key event in the eventual struggle for Irish independence.

Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ & Soldiers’ Deputies

• Definition: A workers' and soldiers' council formed in 1917 in Petrograd, Russia, during the Russian Revolution.

• Significance: It played a crucial role in the Russian Revolution, alongside the Provisional Government, and later aligned with the Bolsheviks during the October Revolution.

Vladimir Lenin

• Definition: Leader of the Bolshevik Party and key figure in the Russian Revolution of 1917.

• Significance: Lenin's leadership led to the overthrow of the Russian Provisional Government and the establishment of the Soviet Union.

Mensheviks

• Definition: A faction within the Russian socialist movement that opposed Lenin’s Bolshevik faction.

• Significance: The Mensheviks were eventually defeated by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution, but they represented the moderate, more democratic wing of socialism.

Leon Trotsky

• Definition: A leading Bolshevik revolutionary and close associate of Lenin who played a major role in the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War.

• Significance: Trotsky was a key figure in the early years of the Soviet Union, but his power struggle with Stalin led to his exile and eventual assassination.

October Revolution

• Definition: The 1917 revolution in Russia, led by the Bolsheviks, which overthrew the Provisional Government.

• Significance: It established the first communist state in the world, leading to the formation of the Soviet Union.

The Whites

• Definition: The anti-Bolshevik forces during the Russian Civil War (1917-1922), consisting of monarchists, capitalists, and others opposed to Bolshevik rule.

• Significance: The defeat of the Whites by the Red Army led to the consolidation of Bolshevik power and the establishment of Soviet Russia.

Russian Civil War

• Definition: A multi-party war from 1917 to 1922 between the Red Army (Bolsheviks) and various anti-Bolshevik groups (Whites).

• Significance: The victory of the Red Army solidified Bolshevik control and laid the groundwork for the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.

Red Army

• Definition: The military force created by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution.

• Significance: The Red Army was instrumental in winning the Russian Civil War, ensuring the survival of the Soviet regime.

War Communism

• Definition: The economic policy adopted by the Bolshevik government during the Russian Civil War, involving state control of industry and agriculture.

• Significance: While intended to support the war effort, it led to widespread hardship and contributed to the eventual adoption of the New Economic Policy.

Armistice

• Definition: An agreement to stop fighting, often a precursor to peace negotiations.

• Significance: The 1918 armistice ended the fighting in World War I, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

Big Three

• Definition: The leaders of the three major Allied Powers in World War I: Woodrow Wilson (USA), David Lloyd George (UK), and Georges Clemenceau (France).

• Significance: The Big Three dominated the post-war peace negotiations and shaped the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

• Definition: A secret 1916 agreement between Britain and France (with Russia’s consent) to divide the Ottoman Empire’s Middle Eastern territories after World War I.

• Significance: It laid the groundwork for modern Middle Eastern borders, sowing seeds of future conflict in the region.

General Syrian Congress

• Definition: A 1919 congress of Syrian nationalist groups that sought independence from the Ottoman Empire.

• Significance: The congress's efforts were thwarted by the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which placed Syria under French control.

Mustafa Kemal

• Definition: The leader of the Turkish War of Independence and founder of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923.

• Significance: Kemal’s reforms transformed Turkey into a secular, national state, and he remains one of the 20th century’s most significant leaders.

“Ethnic Cleansing” in Lausanne

• Definition: The population exchanges between Greece and Turkey after World War I, where Greeks in Turkey and Turks in Greece were forcibly relocated.

• Significance: The exchange marked the end of centuries of Ottoman rule and the beginning of a more homogenous national identity in both countries.

1917 Influenza

• Definition: A global flu pandemic that spread quickly, infecting millions and killing millions worldwide.

• Significance: The pandemic further devastated post-war Europe and contributed to global social and economic instability.

Roaring Twenties

• Definition: The period in the 1920s marked by cultural flourishing, economic prosperity, and social change in many Western countries, especially the United States and Europe.

• Significance: The Roaring Twenties was a time of significant social transformation, with the rise of consumerism, jazz music, the flapper culture, and new technologies. It also marked the beginning of the Great Depression in the early 1930s.

Jazz

• Definition: A genre of music originating in the African American communities of New Orleans in the early 20th century, characterized by swing and improvisation.

• Significance: Jazz became a defining feature of the cultural landscape during the Roaring Twenties and a symbol of modernity, influencing global music and representing the break from traditional cultural norms.

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

• Definition: A British public service broadcaster, founded in 1922, which became one of the world's leading media organizations.

• Significance: The BBC played a central role in shaping public opinion, promoting national unity, and broadcasting important political and cultural events during the interwar period, including World War II.

Igor Stravinsky

• Definition: A Russian composer and conductor, widely regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century.

• Significance: Stravinsky’s compositions, such as The Rite of Spring (1913), were revolutionary and helped shape modern music, challenging conventional ideas about rhythm, harmony, and structure.

Arnold Schoenberg

• Definition: An Austrian composer, music theorist, and painter, known for developing the twelve-tone technique and atonality in music.

• Significance: Schoenberg’s work was highly influential in the development of modern music, pushing the boundaries of tonality and establishing the foundation for much of 20th-century avant-garde music.

Carl Jung

• Definition: A Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology.

• Significance: Jung’s theories, including the concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes, had a profound impact on psychology, as well as on literature, art, and culture during the early 20th century.

Heroic Age of Physics

• Definition: A period in the early 20th century marked by groundbreaking discoveries in physics, including theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.

• Significance: Figures like Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, and Werner Heisenberg revolutionized our understanding of the physical universe, leading to major technological and philosophical changes in the 20th century.

Little Entente

• Definition: A defensive alliance formed in 1920 between Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia to resist Hungarian revanchism and prevent the spread of revisionist powers in Eastern Europe.

• Significance: The Little Entente was a key element of the post-World War I system of alliances in Eastern Europe and represented the effort to counterbalance the threats posed by Hungary and Germany.

Locarno Agreements

• Definition: A series of agreements signed in 1925 between Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, and the United Kingdom, aimed at securing borders in Western Europe and promoting peace.

• Significance: The Locarno Agreements helped stabilize Europe after World War I and were seen as a major step toward reconciliation between Germany and its neighbors. However, they did not prevent future tensions leading to World War II.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

• Definition: A 1928 international agreement in which countries renounced war as a means of resolving conflicts, seeking to outlaw war entirely.

• Significance: Although it was an important symbol of post-World War I idealism, the pact ultimately proved ineffective in preventing the rise of militarism and the outbreak of World War II.

Ramsay MacDonald

• Definition: The first Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, serving from 1924 and again during the Great Depression from 1929 to 1935.

• Significance: MacDonald’s leadership marked a shift in British politics toward social democracy, and his handling of the economy during the Depression was controversial, leading to his downfall.

General Crisis of Production

• Definition: A term used to describe the economic difficulties and the overproduction of goods that contributed to the Great Depression in the early 1930s.

• Significance: The crisis of overproduction, combined with financial instability and unemployment, led to widespread economic hardship and was a key factor in the rise of radical political movements across Europe.

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

• Definition: A U.S. federal government program created in 1935 to provide jobs and public works projects during the Great Depression.

• Significance: The WPA employed millions of Americans and contributed to the economic recovery by building infrastructure, such as roads, schools, and hospitals, while also fostering cultural projects.

Scandinavian Response to the Depression

• Definition: The Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Denmark, and Norway) responded to the Great Depression with a combination of government intervention and social welfare programs.

• Significance: These countries' successful response, including social democracy and welfare reforms, became models for other countries in Europe, influencing the development of the Nordic welfare model.

The Popular Front

• Definition: A political alliance of left-wing parties, including socialists, communists, and liberals, in France and other European countries, formed to resist fascism and authoritarianism in the 1930s.

• Significance: The Popular Front government in France, led by Leon Blum, implemented progressive social and labor reforms but faced challenges from right-wing opposition and economic instability.

Leon Blum

• Definition: The first socialist Prime Minister of France, leading the Popular Front government from 1936 to 1937.

• Significance: Blum's government enacted significant reforms, including the 40-hour work week, paid vacations, and labor protections, but his tenure was marked by political instability and opposition from conservative forces.

Miklos Horthy

• Definition: The Regent of Hungary from 1920 to 1944, Horthy was a nationalist and monarchist who aligned Hungary with Nazi Germany.

• Significance: Horthy’s regime in Hungary was characterized by authoritarianism, anti-Semitic policies, and a partnership with Nazi Germany during World War II, which contributed to Hungary’s eventual occupation by Germany.

Eugenics

• Definition: A set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population, often through selective breeding or sterilization of individuals deemed "unfit."

• Significance: Eugenics gained popularity in many countries during the early 20th century, influencing policies on race, immigration, and social welfare, and contributing to the development of Nazi racial ideology.

Spanish Civil War

• Definition: A conflict from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans, who supported the elected government, and the Nationalists, led by Francisco Franco, who sought to establish a military dictatorship.

• Significance: The war was a precursor to World War II, with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy supporting Franco, while the Soviet Union and international brigades supported the Republicans. Franco’s victory led to the establishment of a fascist regime in Spain.

New Economic Policy (NEP)

• Definition: A policy introduced by Lenin in 1921, which allowed some degree of private enterprise and market mechanisms to rebuild the Russian economy after the Russian Civil War.

• Significance: The NEP marked a temporary retreat from full communism and helped stabilize the Soviet economy, but it was replaced by Stalin’s more rigid state control policies in the late 1920s.

Centralized Russian Control

• Definition: The process by which the Soviet government, under Joseph Stalin, consolidated power and centralized control over the economy and state institutions.

• Significance: This centralization led to a totalitarian state under Stalin, marked by the suppression of political opposition, the creation of a planned economy, and massive state-driven industrialization.

Gosplan

• Definition: The State Planning Committee of the Soviet Union, responsible for planning the economy, particularly through Five-Year Plans.

• Significance: Gosplan played a central role in Stalin’s push for rapid industrialization and collectivization, though it often resulted in inefficiency, shortages, and human suffering.

Transformation of Soviet Society

• Definition: The significant social, economic, and political changes that occurred in the Soviet Union under Stalin’s rule, particularly in the 1930s.

• Significance: Stalin’s policies led to the collectivization of agriculture, mass industrialization, and political purges, while attempting to create a centralized, totalitarian state.

Women in the USSR

• Definition: During the Soviet era, women gained formal equality under the law, including the right to vote and access to education and employment.

• Significance: Despite legal equality, women in the USSR often faced discrimination in practice and were expected to balance work with traditional family roles, particularly under Stalin’s rule.

Lateran Agreement

• Definition: An agreement between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy, signed in 1929, that resolved the "Roman Question" by recognizing Vatican City as an independent state.

• Significance: The Lateran Agreement normalized relations between Italy and the Catholic Church, solidifying Mussolini's political power and securing the Church’s support for his fascist regime.

“Cult of the Duce”

• Definition: The personality cult surrounding Benito Mussolini, the leader of Fascist Italy, which portrayed him as the embodiment of the Italian state.

• Significance: The cult of personality was a key tool in Mussolini’s totalitarian regime, consolidating his control and promoting fascist ideologies in Italy.

Chancellor Heinrich Brüning

• Definition: Chancellor of Germany from 1930 to 1932 during the Weimar Republic, Brüning was known for his policies of austerity in response to the Great Depression.

• Significance: Brüning’s policies of cuts and taxes led to increased political instability and contributed to the rise of the Nazi Party.

Heinrich Himmler

• Definition: Head of the SS (Schutzstaffel) in Nazi Germany, Himmler was a key architect of the Holocaust and a close ally of Adolf Hitler.

• Significance: Himmler’s role in the Holocaust and the enforcement of Nazi ideology made him one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi regime.

Professional Civil Service Restoration Act

• Definition: A 1933 law in Nazi Germany that purged Jews and political opponents from the civil service and other public sector roles.

• Significance: This act was part of the broader Nazi effort to exclude Jews from public life and establish an Aryan-dominated state.

Aryanization

• Definition: The Nazi policy of transferring Jewish-owned businesses and property to non-Jews, often at a fraction of their value.

• Significance: Aryanization was an economic tool used to exclude Jews from the economy and increase Nazi control over German businesses and resources.

Volksgemeinschaft

• Definition: A concept of a "people’s community" promoted by the Nazis, which emphasized the unity of Germans based on race and loyalty to the state.

• Significance: The idea of Volksgemeinschaft was used to promote Nazi ideology and justify the exclusion, persecution, and extermination of Jews, Roma, and other groups deemed undesirable.

Women in Nazi Germany

• Definition: Nazi policies encouraged women to focus on motherhood, family, and the roles of wife and mother, while limiting their participation in the workforce and public life.

• Significance: These policies were part of the broader Nazi effort to promote traditional gender roles, and they reinforced the regime’s goal of creating a racially pure and militarily powerful Germany.

Dunkirk

• Definition: The site of a major evacuation during World War II, where British and Allied forces were evacuated from northern France in May-June 1940 after being surrounded by Nazi forces.

• Significance: The Dunkirk evacuation was a significant moment in World War II, as it allowed over 300,000 British and Allied soldiers to escape, preserving a fighting force for the continued resistance against Nazi Germany.

Henri Pétain

• Definition: A French military leader and the chief of the Vichy government, the collaborationist regime that governed southern France during World War II after France’s defeat by Nazi Germany.

• Significance: Pétain’s collaboration with the Nazis during the occupation of France and his role in the Vichy regime made him a controversial figure in French history. His actions were viewed as a betrayal by many, and he was convicted of treason after the war.

“Comfort Women”

• Definition: Women, mostly from occupied territories, who were forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II.

• Significance: The issue of "comfort women" remains a sensitive and unresolved topic in the post-war era, highlighting the atrocities committed by Japan during the war and the ongoing impact on relations between Japan and its neighbors.

Grand Alliance

• Definition: The alliance formed during World War II between the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom to fight against the Axis Powers.

• Significance: The Grand Alliance was crucial in defeating Nazi Germany and Japan, despite ideological differences between the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, setting the stage for post-war geopolitics.

El Alamein

• Definition: A series of battles in 1942 in North Africa during World War II, where Allied forces, led by the British under General Bernard Montgomery, defeated the German-Italian forces led by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel.

• Significance: The victory at El Alamein marked a turning point in the North African Campaign, preventing the Axis powers from capturing the Suez Canal and securing Allied access to Middle Eastern oil.

D-Day

• Definition: The Allied invasion of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944, during World War II, which marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control.

• Significance: D-Day was one of the largest amphibious military operations in history and a pivotal moment in World War II, leading to the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany.

Battle of Midway

• Definition: A decisive naval battle fought in June 1942 between the United States and Japan during World War II, which resulted in a significant victory for the United States.

• Significance: The Battle of Midway is considered a turning point in the Pacific War, as it severely weakened the Japanese navy and shifted the balance of naval power in favor of the United States.

Japanese Internment Camps

• Definition: The forced relocation and incarceration of Japanese Americans in camps during World War II, following the attack on Pearl Harbor.

• Significance: The internment of Japanese Americans is widely regarded as a violation of civil liberties and an example of wartime hysteria and racial prejudice in the United States.

“Night Witches”

• Definition: The nickname given to the all-female Soviet aircrew who flew bombing missions against Nazi Germany during World War II, particularly at night.

• Significance: The “Night Witches” were celebrated for their bravery and skill, and their contributions to the Soviet war effort were symbolic of the role women played in resisting Nazi forces.

Rape of Nanjing

• Definition: A mass atrocity committed by the Japanese Imperial Army in 1937-1938 in the Chinese city of Nanjing, where thousands of civilians were killed, and many women were raped.

• Significance: The Rape of Nanjing is one of the most brutal episodes of Japanese aggression during World War II and remains a highly sensitive and controversial subject in Chinese-Japanese relations.

American Oil Embargo

• Definition: A measure taken by the United States in 1941 to block oil exports to Japan, as a response to Japanese aggression in China and Southeast Asia.

• Significance: The oil embargo was one of the key factors that led to Japan’s decision to attack Pearl Harbor in December 1941, drawing the United States into World War II.

Potsdam Conference

• Definition: A meeting held in July-August 1945 between the leaders of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom (Truman, Stalin, and Churchill/Attlee), following the defeat of Nazi Germany.

• Significance: The Potsdam Conference set the post-war order, including the division of Germany into occupation zones, and officially marked the beginning of the Cold War as tensions between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies escalated.